Emotional Eating Essay

Emotional eating is a disorder that involves the intake of food as motivated by an individual’s emotional state instead of biological processes (Canetti, Bachar, & Berry, 2002). Even if an individual is not hungry or already full, eating still continues as response or coping mechanism for certain emotional states, usually negative emotions such as anger, anxiety, confusion, loneliness, or sadness. Emotions related to stress also cause emotional eating. The common view of emotional eating is as a temporary condition triggered by the onset of certain emotions. Commonly, this becomes a problem for people only when this has progressed to other problems such as depression or obesity. Nevertheless, the number of people experiencing emotional eating supported efforts to address the emotional problem in clinical practice. Emotional eating could also lead to serious physiological and psychological health problems if unresolved as well as comprise the possible manifestation of other underlying clinical problems. Addressing emotional eating becomes a preventive measure and solution to more serious problems. Existing interventions include psychiatric counseling and diet monitoring by a nutritionist (Field et al. , 2008). However, the treatment of emotional eating depends on individualized diagnosis (Buchanan, 2004) because of variances in the causes and manifestations of the condition in different people. Emotional eating is a disorder with environmental and psychological components. These two components explain the causes and manifestations of emotional eating and point to intervention or treatment options that should consider these two components. The environmental component of emotional eating refers to two causes of the disorder. One is social eating or the common practice of socialization around food. Social gatherings usually bond around food with people consuming more than usual to celebrate an occasion. It is also common for friends comforting each other and providing support, to eat comfort foods that are usually high in sugar. The other is the childhood habit of food as a means of expressing care or reward resulting to the development of emotionally driven attachment to food in adulthood. The celebration of every success is food, with the quantity reflecting the value of the success to the person. All situations requiring comfort also calls for food intake. (Field et al. , 2008) The psychological component revolves around stress as the trigger for emotional eating. Stress elevates the cortisol levels of individuals. Cortisol is a hormone released by the body to respond to stress through heightened mental functioning or boost of energy. However, excessive release of cortisol could cause people to crave for food. Anxiety and depression could also cause people to eat to calm themselves or to ease their discomfort. (Canetti et al. , 2002) Current and Future Research and Treatment Directions on Emotional Eating The current research on emotional eating focuses on the causes and manifestations of emotional eating to diagnose individuals, the role of personality typologies in aiding diagnosis and identifying risk groups, the consideration of gender as a ways of determining risk groups, and treatment options. One explanation for emotional eating is general dissatisfaction. A study determining the propensity to engage in emotional eating of individuals, by using Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, indicated that people placing themselves at the lower levels of the needs hierarchy have a higher propensity to eat to ease their dissatisfaction. (Timmerman & Acton, 2001) Mood association evolved as another explanation for emotional eating. Depression and negative moods have strong effects on emotional eating. The motivation for emotional eating is to experience the well-known pleasure in eating food, especially comfort foods such as sweets or junk food. Taking of midnight snacks due to the inability to sleep because of anxiety, depression and bad mood supported the association. (Bekker, van de Meerendonk, & Mollerus, 2004; Grilo & Masheb, 2004) Human ecology also emerged as a causal explanation for emotional eating. The positive factors associated to food determine emotional attachment to food in times of anxiety, depression or stress. The media also tempers people’s emotional attachment to food. (Field et al. , 2008) Research on the means of diagnosing emotional eating and other closely related eating disorders focused on personality typologies to help in identifying risk groups. People with personality disorders comprise a significant number of people diagnosed with emotional eating and other eating disorders (Picot & Lilenfeld, 2003). Individuals with low self-esteem are also more susceptible to eating disorders (Beeker et al. , 2004). Impulsiveness and thrill-seeking behaviors are also more likely to develop eating disorders with the fulfillment of cravings made to satisfy the need to experience new sensations (Grilo & Masheb, 2004). Gender, age and race are also focus of studies on risk groups for emotional eating. The study of night eating showed that men are more likely to eat food after dinner (Grilo & Masheb, 2004). Women and minority groups have greater concerns over shape and weight due to media influence and cultural norms leading to the perception of food as tempting pleasures. This leads to the attachment of comfort and pleasure to food. (Patel, Pratt, & Walcott, 2003; Ross & Wade, 2004; Vingerhoets, Nyklicek, & Denollet, 2008) There are two interlinked research trends on interventions for emotional eating. One is prevention through early detection via psychological tests. The questionnaire for eating disorders (Q-EDD) could be a diagnostic measure for emotional eating intended to apply to all eating disorders (Callahan et al. , 2003; Milos et al. , 2005). This is a general diagnostic test for all kinds of eating disorders with psychological components. The emotional eating scale (EES) remains an important specific tool in determining people susceptible to emotional eating as well as identifying the existence of concurrent disorders such as depression or personality disorders. (Palmer, 2005; Courbasson, Rizea, & Weiskopf, 2008) Interviews are important diagnostic tools in determining case history and personality factors (Callahan et al. , 2003; Palmer, 2005). The other research trend is treatment, which could be either inpatient or outpatient depending on the co-occurrence of other disorders. The goal of treatment could be the achievement of healthy weight through behavioral weight management programs, alleviation of physical complications, management of co-occurring psychological disorders through drug administration and/or psychotherapy, and ensuring non-relapse through self-help strategies (Pritts & Susman, 2003). Other interventions include anxiety and stress management, diet, exercise, and an overall healthy lifestyle for people without co-occurring psychological disorders to stop emotional eating. A number of alternative treatments exist to stop emotional eating by targeting stress such as acupuncture, relaxation exercises, and herbal medicine. (Cleary & Crafti, 2007)

Psychological disorders Essay

1. Bipolar disorder This is a disorder associated with extreme mood swings. A person’s moods alternate between two opposite ends, that is to say, from extreme sadness to euphoric happiness.   Most people start developing this behavior in their late teens but are well diagnosed in the age between 25 and 40 years. The cause is not clearly known but it is thought to result from chemical (neurotransmitters) imbalance. Imbalance of norepinephrine, serotonin and dopamine levels are believed to be the cause. Bipolar disorder has a genetic and environmental tie.   It can pass down through family members. However, it has to be triggered by some stress. Symptoms include behaviors revolving around mania and depression.   A sick person should be helped to find medical care especially when it threatens basic health.   Blood tests or X-rays are used to confirm the disorder. There is no cure for bipolar disorder. However, proper therapy can manage it and a sick person can go on functioning normally. Treatment is geared towards medication that stabilizes mood swings accompanied with counseling.   Medication is not very effective. Counseling is most successful especially with support from family members. Medication available for prescriptions in the market includes: lithium, valproic acid (depolcote) and Olanzine (zyprexa) among others.   They work by balancing neurotransmitters in the brain.   Some of their side effects include †¢ Lithium – increased urination, dizziness, nausea and diarrhea. †¢ Valproic acid – Drowsiness, weakness, nausea and diarrhea. †¢ Olanzapine – decreased alertness. 2. Depressive disorder This is a disorder characterized with a feeling of sadness. It can affect people of all ages but in the United States, it is five times more common in the elderly than young people (Depression facts: www.enmechizmhealth.com) The causes include a combination of genetic, biological and environmental factors.   It is triggered by abnormalities in the levels of neurotransmitters (serotin, norepinephrine and dopamine) in the brain.   Certain types of depressive disorders are hereditary.   Research has not cleared diagnosed the involved genes. Personality traits such as pessimism, difficult situations such as lose of loved ones, medical conditions e.g. stroke and substance abuse are some of the biological and environmental factors. Symptoms include sadness, crying spells, loss of interest in usual activities, weight loss, inability to sleep, fatigue, thoughts of suicide, headache, boredom and diminished ability to think or concentrate. Treatment includes psychotherapy and medication. However psychotherapy is the most effective. Medical treatment includes antidepressants and supportive care-such as psychotherapy given by psychiatrists. Ant depressants medications in the market include: Selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitors (SSRI), Tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs), Monoamine Oxidase inhibitors (MAOs). SSRIs affect levels of serotonin in the brain.Common SSRIs include fluoxetine, paroxetine and citalopram. TCAs are prescribed in severe cases of depression especially when SSRIs have failed to work. Examples of TCAs include Doxepin and mipramine. MAOs are not commonly used and examples include phenelzine and tranylcypromine. Some of the side effects associated with those medications include: dizziness, nausea, weakness and drowsness. 3. Generalized Anxiety disorder This is a disorder characterized with mild feelings of nervousness to a strong feeling of dread or fear. Symptoms include muscle tension, muscle aches and shaky feelings. It does not affect the brain. The disorder makes the ordinary doing of things difficult.   People with the disorder cannot be able to relax.   They often get fatigued. It is common in children and adolescents. It is not genetic however research is being conducted to determine that. It is mainly induced by environmental factors. Psychotherapy and pharmacotherapy are treatments with the former being the most effective. Medication used include: Ativan, Lipoxide and lurux. Some of the side effects of those drugs are similar to those of bipolar disorder. Obsessive compulsive disorder This disorder is characterized with obsessions or compulsions or both.   Obsessions or compulsion cause distress therefore one cannot concentrate on work or whatever is being done.   Obsessions symptoms include: recurring thoughts, impulses or images that intrude into awareness.   Compulsion symptoms include the need for repetitive physical and mental behaviors.   Example of obsessive behavior is silently repeating words while that of compulsive include behavior like checking the door to confirm whether it is really closed.   It is triggered by substance use, medication and drug abuse. The exact cause is not clear though it is linked with shortage of serotonin in the brain.It has no cure.   Treatment includes counseling, psychotherapy and pharmacotherapy.   Current medication and include luvox, anafruvial and prozac. Prozac has a side effect of weakness and drowsiness. 4. Substance Abuse disorder The disorder is a result of over indulgence and dependence on addictive substance such as alcohol or narcotics. It is not genetic at all. In the United States it is very common especially with the youth. People abuse substances to get a feeling of being ‘high’. Some do that to run away from frustrations. Substance abuses affect normal functioning of the brain. It is thought that they also cause imbalance of neurotransmitters. Treatments include counseling and proper use of prescribed medicine. 5. Schizophrenia This is a chronic and disabling mental disorder.   Its symptoms include delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thoughts and behaviors and disorganized speech. The cause is not clear however it is a combination of genetic, biological, environmental and psychological factors. Neurotransmitters imbalance trigger the condition. The neurotransmitters involved include dopamine, serotin and glutamate. it is also thought to be a disorder of the development of the brain. It has no cure but symptoms treatable. Antipsychotic medications are effective.   Examples of antipsychotic medication include: risperidone, olanzapine, aripiprazole and quetiapine. Olanzapine has a side effect of causing decreased alertness.  Psychotherapy is recommended and is the most effective.

Working Capital

WORKING CAPITALQ1. Which of the following is the primary most objective of working capital? (MCQ)The difference between current assets & current liabilitiesA balance of having liquid assets to ensure the operation is unaffectedManagement of individual working capital componentsWorking capital analysis using ratios(2 marks) Q2. Calculate the Current Ratio & Quick Ratio using the below information. (MCQ)$000Inventory 200Receivables 670Payables 235Bank loan 85Current Ratio 0.37, Quick Ratio 0.27Current Ratio 0.58, Quick Ratio 0.31Current Ratio 1.76, Quick Ratio 1.54Current Ratio 2.71, Quick Ratio 2.09(2 marks) Q3. Pick Co. sold 20% of its inventory on credit for 10% profit. What will be the effect on the quick ratio & current ratio after the inventory sale, if all else is equal? (MCQ)Current Ratio (Increase), Quick Ratio (Increase)Current Ratio (Increase), Quick Ratio (No change)Current Ratio (No change), Quick Ratio (Increase)Current Ratio (Increase), Quick Ratio (Decrease)(2 marks) Q4. Inkle Co has receivables turnover of 8 times, a payables turnover of 4.5 times and an inventory turnover of 2.25 times. Calculate cash operating cycle assuming 365 days in a year? (MCQ)46 Days81 Days127 Days162 Days(2 marks) Q5. Which of the following TWO statements are correct in relation to working capital policies for a manufacturing company and a food retailer? (MRQ)A manufacturing company will need to invest in raw material and result in large amounts to be owed to its customersA food retailer will have a large inventory of large receivables balanceA manufacturing company needs no accounts receivable policyA food retailer will need to consider inventory management policy (2 marks) Q6. Mafia Co is a manufacturing company and has the following periods. Periods DaysReceivables collection 70Raw material turnover 42Work in progress turnover 14Finished goods turnover 42Payables payment 495334032258000What is the time it takes to complete a working cycle? (FIB) Days(2 marks) Q7. Which of the following best describes the working capital turnover? (MCQ)It measures a company's ability to replace its working capitalIt measures the working capital support to the revenuesIt measures the liquidity position of the companyIt measures the profitability position of the company (2 marks) Q8. Yolo Co. has the following inventories:Raw material $600Work in progress $550Finished goods $700Yolo Co has annual purchases of $5,000 with the cost of sales being $2,000. What are the average inventory days for Yolo Co (366 days in a year)? (FIB)23495-317500Days(2 marks) Q9. A company sells toy machine guns in the USA; it yearly sells 15,000 guns at $60/each. It has to receive $56,000 from its customers. In how many days will the company receive all its payments? (MCQ)10 Days23 Days63 Days98 Days(2 marks) Q10. A delay in payment to the suppliers may result which of the following? (MRQ)Future contracts with the suppliers may be disruptedA discount on late payment will be missedGoodwill in the market will be increasedAn increase in the price of products as a compensation (2 marks) Q11. Which of the following is not a typical symptom of overtrading? (MCQ)A significant increase in revenue A bank overdraft reaching its limit A fall in the quick ratio and the current ratio A fall in trade payables days(2 marks) Q12. A company has very high levels of inventory and high cash balances. This is an indication of? (MCQ)Over-tradingHigh cash operating cycle Over-capitalizationLow working capital cycle (2 marks) Q13. Select whether the following statements are true or false. (HA)An increase in sales revenue should likely to increase the level of working capital invested TRUE FALSEA profitability decrease is an indication that the trade cycle has been increased TRUE FALSEUnder-capitalization is the rapid increase in sales as compared to the invested finance TRUE FALSE(2 marks) Q14. Match the following ratios in comparison to identify the over-trading problems. (P;D)A significant increase in sales Customers are paying late than their credit period Current liabilities are in excess of Current assets WORKING CAPITAL GROWTH % QUICK RATIO % INCREASE IN RECEIVABLES(2 marks) Q15. Unto Co is an online sales company which has established its business in the past two years. The CFO has indicated that the company has expanded its business and gained a good market share in these two years but to able to continue further they will need to manage its working capital effectively. Which of the following actions might help overcome Unto Co problems? (MRQ)The shareholders will be asked to inject finance into Unto CoInventory levels should be increased by Unto CoSales of Unto Co should be withheld for some timeRetained profits should be invested back in Unto (2 marks) Q16. An investment policy is the amount of working capital investment needed for a particular company. Which of the following statement related to a conservative policy? (MCQ)Company keeping a low level of inventory will lead an earlier cash operating cycleA lengthy cash operating cycle may lead to high finance costInventory levels ; receivables should be kept at an optimum levelA short cash operating cycle may lead to risky business(2 marks) Q17. Kelp Co has kept its inventory levels at the minimum level from the start of the business. The business was acquired by a competitor and they continued its operation as per their previous owners. In the last three months, the company is unable to meet the supply demands due to a shortage of inventory. The new owner of Kelp Co is unable to recognize the working capital policy. Select the appropriate working capital policy? (MCQ) Conservative investment policyAggressive financing policyAggressive investment policyConservative financing policy(2 marks) Q18. Select the appropriate option. (HA) The efficient management of inventory ; receivables relates to a moderate investment policy TRUE FALSEIf customers pay late to a company this will increase the cash cycle TRUE FALSE(2 marks) Q19. A company needs finance to invest in their assets. Select the appropriate asset in relation to working capital financing policy. (P;D)Assets are bought in their respective seasons Assets continue for more than a year Assets present with the company at any given time of the year NON-CURRENT ASSETS PERMANENT CURRENT ASSETS FLUCTUATING CURRENT ASSETS(2 marks) Q20. Which statement best reflects a conservative working capital finance policy? (MCQ)More short-term finance is used because it's riskyMore long-term finance is used because it improves liquidityMore short-term finance is used to purchase inventoryMore long-term finance is used to pay-off payables(2 marks) Q21. Select the following similarities in an Investment & financing working capital policy. (MRQ)The risk of stock out in the policyThe names used in each policyThe use of assets in the policyThe level of inventory in the policy(2 marks) Q22. Which of the following factors could have an influence in working capital? (MRQ)Company credit policies The future growth prospectThe balance of liquidity & profitabilityThe nature of the companyPayable credit policies of suppliers(2 marks) Q23. Which of the following is a benefit in having a decentralized treasury department in a company? (MCQ) The duplication of workThe benefit of bulk discountingThe low-interest rates applied by the bankThe development of skills of managers (2 marks)WORKING CAPITAL (ANSWERS)Q1. BThe difference between current assets & current liabilities (Definition)A balance of having liquid assets to ensure the operation is unaffected (Objective)Management of individual working capital components (One of the aspects of WC)Working capital analysis using ratios (One of the aspects of WC) Q2. DCurrent Ratio = [200+670] à · [235+85] = 2.71Quick Ratio = [670] à · [235+85] = 2.09 Q3. AThe Quick ratio = IncreaseThe inventory sold on credit, all else being equal receivables (current assets) will increase, so the quick ratio will increase.The Current ratio = IncreaseCurrent assets include Inventory & Receivables. The inventory sold for profit, the receivables increase will be more than the decrease in inventory, the net effect will be the increase in current assets, hence ratio increased. Q4. CReceivable days= (365 à · 8) = 46 daysInventory days = (365 à · 2.25) = 162 daysPayable days = (365 à · 4.5) = 81 daysCash operating cycle = (46 + 162) – 81 = 127 days Q5.A manufacturing company will need to invest in raw material and result large amounts to be owed to its customers (Correct)A food retailer will have large inventory with small receivables balanceA manufacturing company needs careful consideration of accounts receivable policyA food retailer will need to consider inventory management policy (Correct)Q6. 119 daysWorking Capital Cycle= (70+42+14+42) – 49 = 119 Q7. BQ8. 91 daysRaw material days = (600 à · 5,000) Ãâ€" 366 = 44 daysWork in progress days = (550 à · 2,000) Ãâ€" 366 = 101 daysFinished goods days = (700 à · 2,000) Ãâ€" 366 = 128 daysAverage days = (44 + 101 + 128) à · 3 = 91 days Q9. BSales = 15,000 Ãâ€" 60 = 900,000 Receivable days = (56,000 à · 900,000) Ãâ€" 365 = 23 days Q10. Future contracts with the suppliers may be disrupted (Correct)A discount on early payment will be missedGoodwill in the market will be decreasedAn increase in the price of products as a compensation (Correct) Q11. DOvertrading is business trying to do too much too quickly with too little long-term capital. The payment period to accounts payable is likely to lengthen (not shorten). Q12. COver-capitalization represents an excessive investment by a business in its current assets. In the case inventory & cash balance both relate to current assets of a business. Q13. An increase in sales revenue should likely to increase the level of working capital invested TRUE A profitability decrease is an indication that the trade cycle has been increased TRUE Under-capitalization is the rapid increase in sales as compared to the invested finance TRUE Q14. A significant increase in sales Working capital growth %Customers are paying late than their credit period % Increase in ReceivablesCurrent liabilities are in excess of Current assets Quick Ratio Q15. The shareholders will be asked to inject finance into Unto Co (Correct)Inventory levels should be managed efficiently by Unto Co Sales of Unto Co should be lowered not withheld completely for some timeRetained profits should be invested back in Unto (Correct) Q16. BIn a conservative policy, the inventory levels & receivables are kept high resulting longer cash operating cycles leading to a need for finance via overdraft facilities. Overdraft results finance cost. Q17. CThe company kept its inventory levels at the minimum having a high risk of stockouts which indicates the Aggressive investment policy was used by Kelp Co.'s previous owners. Q18.The efficient management of inventory ; receivables relates to a moderate investment policy TRUE If customers pay late to a company this will increase the cash cycle TRUE Q19.Assets are bought in their respective seasons FLUCTUATING CURRENT ASSETSAssets continue for more than a year NON-CURRENT ASSETSAssets present with the company at any given time of the year PERMANENT CURRENT ASSETS Q20. BThe conservative policy finances most fluctuating assets with long-term finance and finances all permanent assets with long-term finance. Resulting low risk eventually improving liquidity but decreasing profitability. Q21. The names used in each policy are same only. Q22. All given above are the factors which can influence the working capital Q23. D

Write-up Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Write-up - Essay Example According to Canner, she was making a documentary on a drug that was a cure to a female disease known as female sexual dysfunction (FSD). In any part of the world, health matters are vital and nobody ever wants to contract a disease if he or she is in a position to avoid it. It is because of this perception that the pharmaceutical company came up with an easy way to make quick profit. The company decided to invent a drug and advertised it in all forms of media in order to get the intended target market, women. Some of the advertisements on television sets claimed â€Å"...40 million women in the US may have FSD disease†¦ (Orgasm Inc., 2011)† According to the documentary, the advertisement worked because in no short time after receiving approval from FDA, people streamed in to pharmaceutical companies and shops in demand for the new drug. Many women went for medical checkups just to be sure of their health status concerning the new disease. During medical checkups, many women tested positive of the disease and encouraged to seek medication, which was costly. According to an interview, one of the women that had undergone medical checkup claimed that doctors told her that she risked death since she had lost a third of her blood volume (Orgasm Inc.,

Financial Accounting Reports Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Financial Accounting Reports - Essay Example Financial accounting as a process mainly produces three types of reports: These statements are produced according to the Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP) either quarterly or annually. As aforementioned, these statements are meant for parties outside the firm and these include investors, regulators, creditors, and tax authorities. In different places of the world, there are different designations for the financial accounting practice such as the CPA (Certified Public Accountant) in the US, and the Chartered Accountant in the UK. Krantz (2012) gives an analysis of the importance of financial reports to investors by emphasizing on the importance of knowing what one is looking for in these reports lest one gets totally lost. A company can release a wide range of reports from quarterly to annual reports. Krantz argues that the reason why it is important for an investor to scrutinize these statements is because they are the most critical sources of information that can be gotten by an investor from a company. Reading these reports makes an investor have a grip of the proceedings of the organisation in which they have entrusted their money. Another party to which these statements are important to is the tax authorities. Since these statements declare the financial position of the organisation, they are important to tax authorities since they assist the authorities to make sure that taxes that have been paid are accurate and that the company has met its total tax liability. The process of preparation of audits is regulated by many laws and regulations which vary from country to country. The laws and regulations that affect an entity determine numerous factors one being the amount reported and the disclosed by an organization in its financial statements. There are other laws and regulations that organizations are supposed to comply with or use as the basis of setting provisions within which the firm are to carry on with their

Difference between Liberalism and Socialism Essay

Difference between Liberalism and Socialism - Essay Example Socialism advocates for total control of resources that contribute to political and economic development. Only through such control, can the state achieve true success and economic prosperity of its people (Hinnfors, 2006). Introduction History and Political Science What is the difference between liberalism and socialism? Through socialism, most of the individuals in a nation are highly likely to be provided for in terms of basic resources. The government in a socialist system is also highly likely to ensure that the people of the nation have all needed social amenities. Socialism is likely to ensure that all the available wealth in a nation has been equally distributed regardless of economic state held by the country’s nationals. However, some of the socialist systems that have been observed in most countries have not been as efficient as they were originally meant to be. If the individuals in the government happen to be corrupt, it is the innocent nationals of a country that suffer since the wealth in the nation does not get distributed as it should be (Mcdonald, 2008). There are different forms of liberalism that are used in the learning fields. This paper will focus on the classical form of liberalism and its views. Liberalism dictates that the governing power should only be in charge of institutions in the country if there is no recorded progress. Individuals that support liberalism feel that the people of a nation are likely to have more freedom if the government is only involved in the control of some institutions (Tamanaha, 2004). What are the basic components and goals of a liberalist government? (Based on the ideas of J.S. Mill, Adam Smith and John Locke) Liberalist governments view the needs and wants of their people as being the most important. The government encourages a system whereby individuals are made to feel free in their environment. There is freedom of speech and other constitutional rights to encourage harmony in the society (Tamana ha, 2004). Liberalist governments are based on the ideals of liberty and equality. The main components of liberalist governments include the freedoms of speech, free elections and right to life and own property. According to John Locke, each individual should have the right to life, own property and liberty. Another component is the rejection of absolute monarchies, state religion and the divine right of kings. J.S Mill asserts that an individual should have the right to do harm on himself or herself as long as he is not harming other people. ((Mcdonald, 2008). Adam Smith, in his work on wealth of nations, he asserted that governments should ensure economic liberalism by not interfering with the markets. He opposed restrictive trade practices, subsidies to government monopolies and trade unions. According to liberalist goals, the selfish interests of individuals will make the economic markets self-regulate. However, Adam Smith argued that the government had limited role in the provi sion of public goods like schools and roads that cannot be provided adequately by the private sector. Adam Smith maintained such costs should be charged to citizens proportionately according to their consumption through tolls ((Mcdonald, 2008). Individuals such as John Locke were on the front in encouraging the adoption of liberalism in governing systems. Liberalism supports the giving of power to the people in communities. Individuals are ideally free to communicate their satisfaction/ dissatisfaction with a government and demand for a democratic way of governing. According to Locke, individuals are entitled to ownership of any form of rights, rights or freedom. A

Public health core function Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Public health core function - Research Paper Example In order to monitor, information regarding health issues and causes for having health hazardous elements is gathered. Agency is responsible for collecting the data on regular basis to find out the current pattern of illness and share the collective knowledge with the upper authorities so that appropriate measures can be taken to prevent the health hazardous elements (FDNU, 2011). State Health Departments have developed a system to collect the information and process it from individual who are suffering from HIV/AIDS and also monitors the pattern divided demographically. The information is kept very confidentially and is processed with confidentiality to plan accordingly to prevent the disease in the local community (NASTAD, 2007). State Health Departments ensures the development of policies in regard to prevent the spread of this disease. The departments also monitor different policies and ensure the adequate monitoring of such policies. Most of the developed policies are to prevent the elements which cause this disease and also make it sure that individuals suffering from such diseases are able to avail the proper treatment (FDNU, 2011). State Public Health departments also make it sure that local government is also supporting their steps to implement different policies like partner notification program and also to protect the confidentiality of individuals suffering from HIV/AIDS . Policies include many different programs like to educate the people of every age so that they can take the precautionary measures; by this the departments are able to provide better services even without the duplication of hard work. More policies are to be developed to prevent this disease from spreading like to create awareness (FDNU, 2011). State Public Health departments also supports in terms of monetary and financially to education programs that

Gun Control Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 1

Gun Control - Research Paper Example And there are people, who support the laws, which give them permission to use the guns to protect themselves or for other purposes, as they believe that it will be safer to live in such environment. Today more than 60% of all crimes and murders are performed with the help of guns. However, the gun control issue became urgent in late 1960s, when the crime rate significantly increased. Murders and assaults were increasing in number for about 30 years. People believed that introducing the laws, which will restrict the gun sale, would improve the situation. According to statistics, 70% of US population believed in this idea and supported it. However, starting from 1994 the crime rate started to decrease (at present the crime rate in the US is 17%  less than 10 years ago), and today only roughly half of the population (about 49%) support strict gun control (Barret "Why Gun Control Is Basically Dead"). Recent accidents, which deal with mass shooting and killings of people in the US, are the reasons why common citizens worry. The accidents at Virginia Tech University (33 deaths), the American Civic Association in Binghamton, New York (14 deaths), elementary school in Newtown, Connecticut (28 deaths), movie theater in Colorado (12 deaths) and other places (Barret "Firearm Sales Up + Crime Down = Gun Control Dead", Barret "Why Gun Control Is Basically Dead", "Gun Control vs. Gun Rights"), make people worry about their own lives and lives of their children, relatives and close friends. The misuse of small weapons is also considered to be one of the vital safety problems in the world. The number of small arms, used by people, significantly increased after the end of the  Cold War. Small weapons are available everywhere in the world, easy to buy and easy to keep unnoticed. Some experts state, that more than 60% of all crimes are committed with the help of small

A Rose For Emily Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

A Rose For Emily - Essay Example In While the theme of the past versus the present assumes numerous forms in this story, as in the clash between the two or the way in which the one intermingles and intersects with the other, this essay will focus on Faulkner’s modes of symbolizing the past and the theme of the past’s subsuming of the present. The past assumes various symbols in â€Å"A Rose for Emily,† with the most predominant being the past as the Old South. The story may be interpreted as a narrative about the Old South, a South which has been battered and defeated by the North and by abolition. It is, however, a South which stubbornly and quite illogically insists on clinging to its former glories and, indeed, one which refuses to accept the passage of time or confront the changes which have been wrought upon it. The South is Miss Emily, personified in her refusal to pay taxes and her failure to acknowledge the new reality which surrounds her, culminating in her dismissive treatment of the town’s authorities and her rejection of the very concept of the mailbox/postal services. The South is also the decaying mansion; the mansion which is falling into disrepair but, despite the ravages of time, maintains its haughty, superior demeanor. Last, but not least, the South is Miss Emily’s â€Å"negroâ₠¬  servant; the man who silently goes about his duties, keeps Miss Emily’s darkest secrets and when she dies, disappears. The implication here is that the past, as represented in this story, is personified in Miss Emily and her servant and symbolized in the house. She is, as the unnamed narrator insists, â€Å"tradition, a duty, and a care; a sort of hereditary obligation upon the town.† Miss Emily is, thus, symbolic of the South’s traditions and heritage. In his symbolization of the South as the old, isolated and alienated woman and her

Parent-Adolescent Relationships. Piaget's Cognitive Development Essay

Parent-Adolescent Relationships. Piaget's Cognitive Development - Essay Example From this it can be concluded that both an understanding of the process of human development psychologically and also socially is required for a fair and balanced scientific analysis or consensus on the process. Mead’s theory compliments Piaget’s by adding a perspective of interpretation based in the social role of the individual and not only the mental processes of psychological development. The process of individualization occurs with the a priori of formal operational thought and through this process an unconscious awareness of the difference between the body-self and environment is conditioned in infancy through exploration. The trial and error process that characterizes environment exploration, operant conditioning, and memory is variable in the family or community environment, but the social role and operational ability represents a further level of complexity residing in the learned rules and codes of conduct of the social conditioning rather than the environment al exploration period. The Me-I dialectic reflects the epistemological function in human development when the self is seen as forming or becoming defined through knowledge verification. Epistemology is also used in self-knowledge valuation when it is applied to social roles by the individual in the adolescent experience or young adulthood particularly, as this is when the widest range of community exploration will occur as the individual seeks for definition in social roles. Social Intelligence refers to different aspects of the community, group, or personal relationships of an individual such as awareness of the symbolic base and logic of a culture, subtle gestures, habits, expectations, or linguistic accents, etc. The majority of these are transmitted as language but differ from alphabetic speech and formal grammar so that there may be multiple languages related to social role identities. Understanding the interplay of the symbolic, subliminal, informal, and cultural languages, as well as their modes of operation, is an aspect of semiotic interpretation. Social Intelligence is different than semiotic interpretation as it relates to the community, group, and individual and the complexity of language, meaning, and interpretation as reflected in human individuality in operant behavior. Vygotsky’s contribution is to recognize how the social definitions also evolve over time and change, as well as to illustrate how different social and community environments and groups differ in complexity of organization. Essay #2 - Ultimately, individuals must enter the larger society, using what they've learned about the world and their place in it. Explain how an individual can cognitively move from self-centered child to an adolescent who is able to 1) maintain social relationships and 2) use those relationships to further develop. Feel free to use your own development for examples if you wish. In human development, the exploration of the natural

Injustices during the progressive Essay Example for Free

Injustices during the progressive Essay During the late 1800s and early 1900s, there were a lot of injustices in the United States. The Progressive Movement, which began in the late 1800s attempted to bring about government reforms and correct injustices in America. One example of the problem in the U.S. was over population of the American cities. More and more people began to move cities from rural areas for jobs. As you can see in Document I, the cities were overcrowded and the infrastructure could not hold up with the influx of people moving to urban areas. The people lived in overcrowded housing developments that were dirty and poor. There was also abuse in industries. This was exposed by Upton Sinclair (Document 2). One of his most well known novels was The Jungle, which showed the abuse in the meat packing industry. He uncovered how the people would take extremely spoiled meat and use it as sausage or put it in to a can. They also used all parts of the meat and even rats were found to be in the meat. By writing this book, Sinclair was able to expose the corruption in the industry of meat packing, and Congress passed the Meat Inspection Act. A position change brought about the declining numbers of children between the ages of ten and fifteen who worked. In Document 3, you can see by the chart that the number of children working decreased by 6.8% from 1890 to 1920. Children were often used as cheap labor and were abused greatly. The government was able to reduce the number of working children under sixteen during this period of time because many states passed children labor laws. Around this time, big businesses came to power. As shown in Document 4, there were many abuses in businesses. The people who ran and formed these industries/trusts/businesses, such as Andrew Carnegie, Rockefeller, and Henry Ford. They acted like the big bosses and held control of much of the U.S. industry. In Document 5, Teddy Roosevelt explained how he felt about how these big businesses (oil, steel, copper, etc.) should be regulated if they are only in it for the money and power. Teddy Roosevelt became known as  a trust-buster because he enforced the Sherman Antitrust Act. During the late 1800s the Progressive Party was formed. They wanted to bring about change in the U.S. One of their main goals included the reforming of industries. In Document 6, their platform is partly shown. Under their platform, they wanted to prevent accidents, diseases acquired on the job, and unemployment. They further wanted to have better health and safety centers, and minimum wage. In 1913, the 17th Amendment was added to the Constitution (Document 7). When the Constitution was first written in 1787, the senators were elected by legislators. In order to make the selection of senators more democratic, the 17th amendment was added. It said that senators would be elected by people from each state, not by the legislature. This is why we now have candidates that campaign for seats in the senates to the people. By adding this amendment to the Constitution, it made the U.S. more democratic. Women suffrage also took place during this time. People like Susan B. Anthony (Document 8) and Elizabeth Cady Stanton worked and campaigned for women to be allowed to vote. Susan B. Anthony used the preamble of the Constitution to argue her case. She stated that the Constitution said We the people not We the men' She said the Constitution was written for all people, not just men. Her efforts eventually paid off, and the 19th amendment was passed in 1922 allowing women to work. In conclusion there were many injustices in the U.S. from the late 1800s to the early 1900s. The Progressive Movement help to bring about more change as did the government. Teddy Roosevelt tried the limit the abuses of big businesses, and women suffrage was granted, and the meat packing industry was exposed. With each time comes problems but with activists some are changed and reformed. During this time period, there were a lot of injustices and issues, many of which were discovered, addressed, and reformed.

Final Exam Critical Thinking Essay Example for Free

Final Exam Critical Thinking Essay Our newest product Wet Wonders lip gloss, has not been performing very well. Creative Cosmetics needs to come up with different ways to market our lip gloss in order to boost sales. The projected sales for Wet Wonders lip gloss have slumped and we are in danger of having to scrap this product and its promotional campaign. During product development, our initial testing proved that Wet Wonders can be successful based off the positive feedback we received. In order to boost sales, Creative Cosmetics needs to analyze the role of advertising in society, why it’s so important and how to effectively use it. Without advertising consumers would not be told what to buy. Advertising is the reason our homes are filled with so many items, why we drive the cars we do and why we wear the clothes we wear. There have been many studies on the increase of advertisements over the years. In 1915, a person could go entire weeks without observing an ad. The average adult today sees some three thousand every day (Twitchell 203). Advertising also fuels the need to shop which in turn stimulates the economy. Economist can track consumer spending every quarter allowing them to gauge how well the economy is doing. Due to budget constraints, Creative Cosmetics chose to only sell Wet Wonders through ads on the radio. Using only radio ads to market our product, has not proven to be very effective. While radio allows you to tell a story and take the listener’s mind on a journey, it is not the most effective means of marketing a lip gloss. The radio paints a broad stroke, meaning it is heard by many different people. There are specific times when we could have our ads running that could pinpoint a certain group of people, although it’s not necessarily guaranteed. Another downside to radio ads is they don’t have the ability to allow the consumer to see what they are missing. It’s not enough to say we have a wonderful product. We want to make the consumer feel that their lives would be so much better with our lip gloss and if they don’t buy it then they are missing out on something great. In other words, we have to convince them that they need our lip gloss in order to make their lives as exciting as the woman wearing it. Television could do that most effectively. Television commercials would give us the visual component we need. Our ads could really drive home the message that Wet Wonders lip gloss can change your whole look in instant. We want women to feel as though they can go from drab to fab with just one swipe of our lip gloss. Television would give us the ability to make women as though they would feel, sexy, confident and desirable when they wear our lip gloss. We could run our commercials during peak times that women are watching television such as the morning and afternoons. While there are a lot of women working outside the home, there are still a good number of women that stay at home to raise families. An ideal time to run our commercials would be during talk and game shows as well as soap operas. Another idea would be to use a famous person or celebrity in our advertising. People like to feel as though they trust the person they are buying something from and even though they may not personally know the celebrity they trust them. Since we know our product would be best suited being marketed on a visual platform, we should also consider magazine ads. Magazines would be a perfect way to market our Wet Wonders lip gloss. With magazine ads we could saturate the market with our product and message. There are teen magazines, young adult beauty magazines, and magazines for the more mature woman. Every one of these genres have women that are sexy, confident, and desirable. This is exactly the woman we want to market to. Magazines have the ability to make consumers visualize themselves as that sexy, vibrant woman that wears Wet Wonders lip gloss just by looking at a picture.

Global governance play in globalisation

Global governance play in globalisation Globalization is seen as a universal change in the lives of people either positively or negatively. In this essay I will start by defining globalization from different perspectives. As in the argument of some critics, globalization has benefits as well as limitations, Therefore it is necessary to look at those advantages and shortcomings. Another important aspect is the theory of international relations and globalization. Each of this theory emphasise on power but has different notions to its meaning. However, exercising power via globalization is seen as a challenge in the international relations theories today. Furthermore, institutions of global governance play different role in globalization as to what they are specialized in and known for. Majority of these institutions are determined to achieve their roles despite challenges. These institutions are so vast that they cannot be exhausted. Therefore, in this essay I will focus on the United Nations Organization. It is an institution with several agencies. These agencies are not liable to the United Nations Organization in terms their subsequent activities. But they are seen as part of the United Nations. Therefore, role that these agencies play in globalization is what i will also discuss in this essay. Moreover, the Millennium Declaration determined to achieve to ten objectives by 2015.The principal objective is halving rural poverty by 2015 and globalization is seen as a tool to which they will achieve their aim. How they intend carrying out this task is what i will also discuss in this essay. That is strategies used and how it was implemented .Finally, this essay will be concluded by summarising the whole point and To start with, globalization, as argued in John Baylis and Steve Smith (2001:14), is defined in five different ways, as internationalization which connotes the coexistence and reliance on two or more countries.Another is liberalization defined as the freedom of trade without governments restriction.Universalization which can be understood as the disperse of knowledge to the world.Westernization is portrayed as the American opinion of implementing globalization and lastly Deterrritorialization is observed as exchange for geography that is territorial area, distance and boarders. Furthermore, globalization can also be understood as the intensification of social worldwide relations that connect localities from distant in a way that the happenings in the locals are modified by events occurring at distance of miles away and vice versa. In other words, it is a process of amalgamating peoples of the world into a unified state.(John Baylis and Steve Smith 2001:15) In sum, globalisation can be defined as an economic, social, and political developed world that has effect on the peoples and societies mostly in the underdeveloped and third world. These latter world has benefited positively and negatively from the events initiated by the developed world. Such benefits includes communication that is the world wide web, radio transmission, satellite communication, television communication, global newspapers, which has made communication easy and flexible for people..Also the global franchise Pepsi, Guinness, Pizza Hut and the global economy as well as global disease such as AIDS, Kidney Failure, Cancer ,Etc. They are all features of globalisation. John Baylis and Steve Smith (2001:14-16) However, as argued in John Baylis and Steve Smith (2001:19), globalisation has advantages and disadvantages In term of its benefit to the world .It has made the ease of communication stress less and affordable. For instance internet access allows instant message rather that posting which take more than twenty four hours. Also the electronic mass media communication such as radio, television, telephone communication etc has allowed easy access to information and as well as relating to people within and far away. The economy system is seen as a benefit in globalization, Trade and finance are expanding. Foreign currencies like the US dollar, in Euro, Yen, are use all over the world international and in the local countries to purchase goods .Global culture allows interrelation among people from different part of the world to appreciate one and the others culture and religious which avoids ethnic and religious crisis. Moreover, in the argument of John Baylis and Steve Smith (2001:19).Though globalisation has benefitted the world in enormous ways there are limitations to what it posses. Globalisation seems to be limited to the world it was invented. Other societies that are not in the developed world are still back dated in terms of communication, economy and culture. This is as a result where ethnic and religious crises are still very common. Furthermore, it is also argued that there are limited companies from different part of the world in the international trade economy where different countries merge as a company to trade internationally, but these are rather done within a particular country. That is the global economy trade, investment as well as financial flow which are within three continents Europe, North America and Asia.(John Baylis and Steve Smith 2001: However, in the international relations theory globalization does not represent a transformation of the international system. It represents an adaptation of the means through which international interactions are exercised, combined with an increase in the number and types of actors. Therefore, one can know that globalization exist and matters as part of the structure of international relation because of the effects that it produces. A close look at these effects demonstrates that globalization is neither as independent nor causal phenomenon. Rather, globalization is best understood as a technology facilitated proliferation of the means through which power within the international system is channelled and pursued. What makes globalization a new, and essential, component of the contemporary international security are the increasingly complex conditions under which international actors exercise power. (security Dialogue 2004: 11) The classical approach to the study of international relations, realism, focuses on the nation-state as a barrier between the international system and the domestic sphere of politics. Domestic politics are seen as separated from the international system, which is characterised as anarchy or the absence of order. Realists focus on the nation-state especially the military and economic capabilities and seek to maximize power toward this end. (Security Dialogue 2004: 11) State must ensure that they can provide for their military and economic safety, and they cannot count on the goodwill of others. Institutions such as international law and formal international organizations might be useful as tools but they are not to be relied upon for security guarantees. (Mearsheimer: 1995). To realists, globalization reflects the hegemonic influence of the major powers in international politics. Realists tend to see proximity creating vulnenerability, which leads to conflict (Waltz, 1979: Measheimer, 2001) It is therefore argued that globalization, is more complicated than the realist theory alone can account for. That is if globalization is measured as the acceleration of transboundary communication, international networks, the diffusion of power, reciprocity and mutual dependence, and the expansion of universal norms and principles, a different conclusion about contemporary international politics emerges. This trend combined with the proliferation of non state actors such as the formal international organization, nongovernmental organization, and multinational cooperation to alter the playing field of international relations.(Security Dialogue 2004 :12) Neoliberal institution focuses on the unique conditions of globalization that reflect accelerating interdependence and its impact on how state perceive their interests(Keohane, 2002).In a condition of complex interdependence, state will recognize a mutual demand for cooperation, and new actors will emerge that affect international agenda setting while power becomes more diffused. Traditional measurement of power such as military capabilities will become less valuable to states as they prioritize long term benefits from cooperation over short term tactical advantages(Keohane and Nye, 2001) In recognizing a state based interest in collectively managing a globalized world, states seeks to reduce coordination problems, to establish agreed principles, norms, rules and decision making procedures, to facilitate transparency, to increase the capacity for bargaining and issue-linkage ,to enhance socialization toward an international community, and to lower the transaction costs of collective action.(security dialogue 2004:12) Another major school of international relations theory, constructivism, draws on social theory of human interaction and posits that the structure and content of international relation are the by-products of social interaction (Wendt, 1994). In this sense, not all states are alike, rather states reflect the social structures around which their peoples coalesce. Just as the domestic content of politics and culture shapes the identity of nation state, so does the nation state simultaneously shape the international environment (Wendt, 1999). The major paradigms of international relations provide an important basis for examining the relationship between globalization and security. Realists demonstrate that power matters and that there remain some key common goods that only the nation state can supply though realist are challenged to think harder about hoe power matters and how best to understand the new realities of global politics(Brown, 1998). The neoliberal institutionalist school shows that international system is increasingly complex and that states alone cannot fully provide for their own security. Neoliberals are, nevertheless, challenged to demonstrate exactly how cooperation can best be achieved Constructivist remind observers that inter-national relations are a battle not just power, interests, and agenda setting but also of ideas. The importance of material economic gains and hegemony only have meaning in so far as they are ideas given to people and societies. Consequently, people and societies have power to se ek positive or negative change for the future of globalization.(security dialogue:13) From these theoretical approaches to international relations, it is possible to delineate between the risk and opportunities that globalization provides for security provision. Realism suggests that globalization will breed suspicion, vulnerability conflict because the more interdependent people and state become, the more insecure they will be(Waltz:1979)Realism also suggests that the content of globalization reflects the relative distribution of power and favours the dominant international actors.(Security dialogue 2004: Alternatively, neoliberal institutionalism proceeds from basic optimism that managing globalization requires multilateral cooperation and states will define their quest for power in terms of mutual gains. Constructivist help observers recall the importance of identity and reinforce the fact that, while states matter, so does culture.(Huntington) These major theories of international relations share an emphasis on the role of power though each comes to different conclusions as to its meaning and consequences. Each analytical approach helps students, scholars, and policy makers to understand that the quest for power holds within it the potential for both security and insecurity, for both war and peace. Understanding the new means of excercing power via globalization is thus one of the most fundamental challenges for international relations theory today (Security Dialogue 2004:13) However, the institutions of global governance play several roles in globalization. The United Nations organization is one of other institutions with several agencies. Therefore, since the United Nations comprises of several agencies. These agencies are not liable to the United Nation in terms of the cabinet or congress.. They are independent of their roles. They are divided into separate regions which include, The United Nations Programme and Office, United Nations Regional Commission, United Nations Specialised agencies, and the Related Organization. However, the United Nations Programme and Office has the largest number of agencies in which few will be mentioned as well as the role they play in globalization. They are International Trade Center, United Nations ProgrammeHIV/AIDS,United Nations Childrens Fund, United Nations Development Fund for Women, United Nations Development Programme, United Nations Environment Programme, United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, United Nations Human Settlements Programme, United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research, United Nations Institute for Training and Research, United Nations Interregional Crime and Justice Research Institute, United Nations Office for Project Services, United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, United Nations Population Fund, United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine, just to mention a few.(United Nations today 2008:12) The United Nations Development Fund for women is an organization fighting for women rights in all perspective. It protest against discrimination, violence, gender inequality and propose women right to inheritance, work, voice etc. Its main role includes ending violence against women which is a situation to prevent women from being molested, rape, or beaten up as well as trafficked across borders. In achieving this they work across multiple levels and sectors as well as including men as partners in enhancing community ownership. The agency is also trying to eradicate the spread of HIV/AIDS among women, in collaboration with the National AIDS Council and Ministries which ensures women access to drugs in order to continue to live healthy.(United Nations Development Funds: 1-5) The United Nations Childrens Funds is an organization mainly for children globally. This agency ensures that the well being of children are put to check. Its role basically is to prevent a child from violence, discrimination, poverty, diseases and so on. In achieving their aim they work in collaboration with other agencies like the Global Movement for Children which is dedicated to improving the life of every child as well as promoting education, equal right for children, and prevent the spread of disease.(United Nation Children Funds 2008:1) In the United Nations High commission for Refugee, which is a global organization that has its headquarters in continents like Africa, Asia, Europe, America etc. It ensures that the well being of individual are protected locally and internationally. They include the refugees, men, women, older people, asylum seekers etc. As part of their role they raise funds from different organization like the None Governmental organization, Private sectors, Individual Citizens, and also in collaboration with the United Nations for certain amount of humanitarian funding. This helps in terms of achieving their goals. They respond to emergency worldwide where there exists internal war, earthquakes etc. They also see to the right of asylum seekers are observed and not overlooked.(United Nations High commission for Refugee 2001-2009) The United Nations population Fund is an organization that ensure the well being as well the rights of individual are protected. Her role involves alleviation of global poverty, prevention of diseases such as HIV/AIDS, equal opportunity among citizens of the country, and healthy living. They also ensure abortion is put to stop and save every birth. They also assist countries in the collection of data and population analysis which enable government of a country to take account of the need of future generations, as well as the present. Ensure gender equality among both sex in which women has a major role in which involves good education and health. This enables families, communities as well as the countries benefits from. (United Nations Population Funds: 2008) The United Nations Development Programmes is a global agency under the United Nations. They assist citizens of different countries in building a better life. They also help to build and share solution to the challenge of democratic governance for instance on the 17th of November 2009 they supported the government of Bangladesh to sustain and build on the achievements of the last decade and to remain on track to achieve the Millennium Development Goals, also eradication of poverty, and preventing crisis recovery as well as HIV/AIDS.(UNDP) World food Programme is a global organization whose role involve fighting against hunger world wide, saving the lives of victims at war, civil conflicts and natural disasters. It is a voluntary funded organization and also part of the United Nations. They also work in collaboration with the Food Agriculture Organization (FAO), International Fund for Agricultural Development as well as Non Governmental Organization. Their main aim is to save lives and protect livelihood in emergencies, prepare for emergency, restore and rebuild lives, reduce hunger as well as to strengthen the capacity of countries to reduce hunger (World Food Programme: 2009) Another group of agencies under the United Nation is the specialised agencies, which includes, the international Labour Organization, International Monetary Fund, Food and Agricultural Organization, International Maritime Organization, United Nations Educational ,Scientific and cultural Organization, World Health organization, International Telecommunication Union, World Intellectual Property Organization, World Tourism Organization, among others. The International Labour Organization promote right to work, encourage decent employment opportunities, enhance social protection and strengthen dialogue in handling work related issues The organization helps in the creation of decent jobs. It is a global body responsible for drawing up and overseeing international labour standards as well as working with its member state which includes: Albania, Algeria, Angola, Azerbaijan, Bah ran, Belgium, Bolivia, Canada, Chad, Columbia, the Congo, Ghana, Greece, Lebanon, Kuwait, Liberia, just to mention a few. To the International Labour Organization Poverty eradication is by ensuring that employment is available to all. (International Labour Organization: 1996-2009) The United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural organization is designed to promote international cooperation among its member states and six associates members in the field of education, science, culture and communication. Its role is to ensure and observe human rights, mutual respect as well as poverty eradication (UNESCO: 1995-2009). The international telecommunication Union is an information and communication organization where both the governments and the private sectors enhance networks and services. Its role has been global use of the radio spectrum, promotion of international cooperation in assigning satellite orbit. It address the issue of global challenges which is the climate change as well as enhancing cyber security This agency organise worldwide, regional exhibition and forums, such as the International Telecommunication World, as well as linking together representatives of governments and the telecommunications including international telecommunication Industry to have exchange of ideas, knowledge, and technology for the benefit of the global community and in particular the developing world (ITU: 2009) The related organizations include, International Atomic Energy Agency, Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons, Preparatory committee for the Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty Organization, and World Trade Organization. The International Atomic Energy Agency is a worlds atomic peace organization. They are in collaboration with their member states as well as other partners globally in order to ensure safety, security, and peaceful nuclear technology. It is an independent international organization related to the United Nations system. These relationships are regulated by special agreement. Their role is to ensure that safe nuclear materials and activities are not used for military purpose. As part of its role, it helps countries in enhancing nuclear safety and security and to prepare for and respond to emergency as well as mobilizing peaceful applications of nuclear science and technology (IAEA 2003-2009) The organization in charge of prohibition of chemical weapon is body responsible for carrying out chemical weapons convention. It has been given the task to achieving its objectives. This is to making sure that the provision and that of international verification is carried out. The destruction of chemical weapons is seen as the conventions highest budget. The proceeds from the state-of-art technology is its major source income in destroying chemical weapons and minimizing the risk of people and the environment at every level and that of transportation and supply of ammunitions.States protect their citizens because of these dreadful and dangerous weapons. They now concentrate on the practical use of chemical weapons for peaceful and capacity buildings. Program funded by member state is also given aid in order for the organization to improve the implementation of chemical weapons to all for peaceful purpose and restricting its prohibition. (OPWC) The United Nations main role is to ensure that the well being of the people are under control. Also to prevent wars among states, and the need of people are met globally especially in the underdeveloped world . As in the argument in John Baylis and Steve Smith (2001:332). Poverty is seen as a global issue not just in the underdeveloped world. As in the argument of Ruth Lister (2004:1) deep poverty is not just a phenomenon of the global South but exists also within the affluent North. Therefore, another major aspect in this essay is the role of United Nations as an institution of global governance and the impact of globalization to reduce rural poverty? The Millennium Declaration summit of which 191 countries are members, made rural poverty reduction as their main objective to be met by the year 2015.The Secretary General of this Summit lay emphasis on globalization as the tool that will be used in order to meet the need of the poor.(United Nation :2001).Therefore, in achieving their aim the role of the United Nations as well as other agencies are of great importance. Suggestions in admitting other agencies were acknowledge and approved by the ACC in October 2001.which was formulated by the United Nations Development Group. Among these agencies are the UNFPA, United Nation Childrens Education Fund (UNICEF) United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) World Health Organization (WHO), UNCDP, UNESCO, just to mention a few. As in the argument of the (United Nations: 2001). Furthermore, it is argued that United Nations Programme in addressing the issue of poverty reduction is a challenging issue. Agencies mentioned above had roles to play in one way or the other. Though, some role could be of major benefit than the other. As the suggestion made by the Millennium Declaration Goals that globalization is a means or tool in fighting against rural poverty is to be met therefore, globalization based good and services, financial economic, social as well as global public goods should be seen as benefits in the rural poor through enhanced governance system .(United Nations 2001:10) Moreover, the United Nations major role as an impact of globalization in poverty reduction is argued to be guided in three different levels. These levels includes: the international, regional and the local level. They are said to be in cooperation with one and the other. It is further argued that each of this level has important role to play in actualizing the aim of the programme, which is the coming together of the United Nations, the Private and public sectors the civil society as well as the poverty group(United Nations: Some of the plans established in accelerating globalization/poverty reduction will focus on improve Governance correlating with PRSPs and UNDAF; an institution to reform and liberalize market programmes for the welfare and protection of the poor. Linked programme for a national ICTD with greater focus on satisfying issues and bringing together the rural and urban. Exporting of crops in the rural area by enhancing its information system. Establish a procedure that will add value in rural production. United Nations: Among the programmes set up for local poverty reduction are the local awareness programme on availability of goods and services for rural poverty reduction. Establishment of interest point for the community, aid for local governance and splitting into various offices to attend to different poverty groups to global public goods- health, education etc.The quickening of Information Communication Development Technology (ICTD) for various poverty groups will create awareness and tools for information sharing device tools, improve agricultural tools and move to improve productivity akin to socially sensitive local globalization /poverty reduction programme.(United Nations: The procedure of UN system in dealing with globalization and alleviation of poverty at all levels is on ground and can be used to determine the strategy for the new globalization/poverty alleviation model. The procedures considered range from providing an avenue for debate and discussion that include the intergovernmental processes, expert group meetings; open debate, meetings prepared for major global summits (prepcoms) and various events like the joint session with the G-77, South-South forum. These are primarily arranged through the UN secretariat (especially UNDESA), funds and programme (especially UNDP) and a special agency (especially World Bank Group) which is part of their activities and provide the most important contribution of the UN system to views and approaches emerging. The extent of debate at which globalization rural poverty reduction is discussed varies and depends on the nature of the division and agency.(United Nations: The UN pays little attention to particular issues on globalization as a factor in rural poverty reduction despite the much discussion on globalization. Another branch is the research studies, statistics and seminars in different publications. The UN provides an enormous technical studies and relevant statistics to almost all the branches of globalization- poverty reduction debate. With the exception of examples given below- the mission of rural poverty alleviation is almost neglected. Other worth mentioning body in this regard are the UN research system and Training Institute that include INSTRAW (rural women and globalization); UNITAR (Globalization issues on how UN system will cope); UNRISD (social impact of globalization) have all produced much important studies to the globalization/poverty reduction debate. Nevertheless, defining the cause in stance on globalization and rural poverty reduction has been defeated by the UN plan with the exception of the World Bank, UNCTAD and UNDP- but still focus on the wider globalization agenda. This view however, is of significant to developing an assiduous approach and adopting a more socially, acceptable and human form of globalization that will build specific provisions for the nations exempted through different mechanisms such as the WTO, trade negotiations, finance for development, PRSPs etc. Field level operation of Funds, Progarammes and Specialized Agencies. These have many parts covering many forms of intervention that can always target poverty alleviation. The traditional areas include: Country project activities to yield capacity building, Seminars, Workshops Fellowship Infrastructural development The implementation of an organized approach to globalization/poverty alleviation is the UN system policy in the field under the UNDAF system. The World Bank via the PRSPs is helping to coordinate the UN system in the field. Finally, globalization as it is defined is a wide and vast phenomenon that has so much to do and achieve. Considering its characteristics and its functions, it has in one many ways achieve enormously. Moreover, in terms of how the international relations theory and globalization

Contemporary Russian Thought :: Russian Culture Essays

Trends of Contemporary Russian Thought (1) ABSTRACT: This paper focuses on the most recent period in the development of Russian thought (1960s-1990s). Proceeding from the cyclical patterns of Russian intellectual history, I propose to name it 'the third philosophical awakening.' I define the main tendency of this period as 'the struggle of thought against ideocracy.' I then suggest a classification of main trends in Russian thought of this period: (1) Dialectical materialism in its evolution from late Stalinism to neo-communist mysticism; (2) Neorationalism and Structuralism; (3) Neo-Slavophilism, or the Philosophy of National Spirit; (4) Personalism and Liberalism; (5) Religious Philosophy and Mysticism, both Christian Orthodox and Non-Traditional; (6) Culturology or the Philosophy of Culture; (7) Conceptualism or the Philosophy of Postmodernity. "The Karamazovs are not scoundrels but philosophers, because all real Russian people are philosophers..." Dmitry Karamazov, in Fyodor Dostoevsky. The Brothers Karamazov It is a property of the Russian people to indulge in philosophy. ...The fate of the philosopher in Russia is painful and tragic. Nikolai Berdyaev. The Russian Idea The fact that one can annihilate a philosophy . ... or that one can prove that a philosophy annihilates itself is of little consequence. If it's really philosophy, then, like the phoenix, it will always rise again from its own ashes. Friedrich Schlegel. Athenaeum Fragments, trans. Peter Firchow, 103. The last period of the Soviet ideocracy, approximately from the early 1970s through the late 1980s, can be characterized as a period of "philosophical awakening," to use the felicitous expression of the theologian Georgy Florovsky (1893 - 1979). "Such awakening is usually preceded by a more or less complicated historical fate, the abundant and long historical experience and ordeal, which now becomes the object of interpretation and discussion. Philosophical life begins as a new mode or a new stage of national existence... One can feel in the generation of that epoch some irresistible attraction to philosophy, a philosophical passion and thirst, a kind of magical gravitation toward philosophical themes and issues." (2) Florovsky refers here to the first "philosophical awakening" of Russia in the span of years from 1830s to 1840s: roughly, the generation of Chaadaev, early Westernizers and Slavophiles, such as Belinsky, Herzen, Bakunin, Khomiakov, the brothers Aksakov, and the brothers Kireevsky. (3) Russia's second philosophical awakening occurred in the first two decades of the 20th century, following in the wake of the unsuccessful revolution of 1905 and disenchantment of the most refined part of intelligentsia with the low intellectual level of populism, Marxism and other socialist theories.

Blue People of Troublesome Creek :: essays research papers

The Blue people of Troublesome Creek, sounds like a title of fiction novel, but the Blue Fugates were no fictional characters, but they were real humans that lived not too far from where we are today. The Blue Fugates were a very close family live on the banks of eastern Kentucky's Troublesome Creek. Martin Fugate, a French orphan settled in Troublesome Creek and astonishingly Martin somehow managed to find a woman who carried the same, very rare disease. The disease, later discovered, was methemoglobinemia, a very rare heredity blood disorder caused by an inheritance of a gene as a simple recessive allele. What one wonders after hearing ?blue people? is if they were actually really blue in color? Well the answer is yes and no. Some of these people were, in fact, blue, but they were not completely covered with bright blue skin from head to toe. Although there were some cases though where most of an individual?s skin was blue, but for the most of them it was usually just their extremities and/or lips and parts of their face. Their color wasn?t completely blue but had more of just a bluish tint. It was not a bright blue like you are used to seeing but more or less of an ashen grayish that was mildly bluish in appearance but nevertheless they were ?blue,? some more than others. Since methemoglobinemia is a disease caused by a gene inherited as a recessive allele. To get the disease, one would have to inherit two genes, meaning one from each parent. Some of the Fugates children had just that and they had the disease while some were just carriers of the disease. Methemoglobinemia cases were significant among Alaskan Eskimos and Native Americans. The Eskimos and Native Americans were both inclusive groups that didn?t interact much with what was outside their worlds. The Blue People fit that category well because they were a very small community and since they all lived close together in small area, most of them isolated themselves from the outer world. That in turn, often led to interbreeding, where Fugates would marry other Fugates, or their neighbors, which could and very well may have been their cousins. The interbreeding kept the disease alive and spread it throughout the small community. Methemoglobinemia has no serious, life threatening effects and an individual who has the disease can live a normal healthy life.

something :: essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Def Jam Records is the most dominant and successful record label in the music industry today. Def Jam lives and breathes by one rule: continuity, and the men behind the legendary label are: Kevin Liles, Lyor Cohen, and founder/CEO Russell Simmons are the brains and life behind the label. Def Jam is the home of many of raps greatest names like LL Cool J, Run-DMC, Jay-Z etc. these are the names and this the label that brought rap music to the mainstream without changing or sugar-coating anything just to get to the top.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Lyor Cohen co-president of Island Def Jam music who oversees black music at Universal Records. In a January 2001 interview in â€Å"The Source† magazine Cohen says â€Å"we tend to our own gardens here, we don’t look into our neighbors garden. We are happy to see them do whatever they want to do, drive whatever they want to drive. No matter how much they â€Å"bling-bling† we don’t care about that†. This is what makes Def Jam so successful, they don’t â€Å"lean† with the trends that other labels and artists set, they make their own trends and do a great job at it. Cohen, ex-manager of Run-DMC, and longtime partner of Russell Simmons has been with Def Jam since almost Day one. Cohen Says â€Å"not only are we selling the most records consistently for the longest period of time† he points out â€Å" we have the most diversified hip-hop empire period.† Cohen is an up in your face businessman and complime nts the laid back demeanor of his two other partners. Cohen who seeked out most of the â€Å"power artists’ that Def Jam has on their legendary label, he also oversees money and the contract of all the artists on the label. His greatest asset, according to insiders is his ability to persuade white execs for extra money. But Cohen’s a big talker who can be heavy handed and it makes working with the powerhouse a bit hard to work with.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Kevin Liles who is over Def Soul Records, who started out as an intern, is now part of the three-headed monster and when the 5’3 giant barks people listen. Liles states in the January 2001 â€Å"The Source† magazine â€Å" Def Jam is more than a company name and logo it’s a lifestyle. It all comes back to foundation, Def Jam just keeps it in the trenches†. Liles says later in the interview â€Å"we spent 18 years building a brand that represents the best of hip-hop.

Abusive Supervisory Reactions to Coworker Relationship Conflict

The Leadership Quarterly 22 (2011) 1010–1023 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect The Leadership Quarterly j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. e l s ev i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / l e a q u a Abusive supervisory reactions to coworker relationship con? ict Kenneth J. Harris a,? , Paul Harvey b, K. Michele Kacmar cIndiana University Southeast, School of Business, 4201 Grant Line Road, New Albany, IN 47150, USA Management Department, Whittemore School of Business and Economics, University of New Hampshire, USA Department of Management and Marketing, Culverhouse College of Commerce and Business Administration, 143 Alston Hall, Box 870225, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, Alabama 35487-0225, USA b c a a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t This study extends research on abusive supervision by exploring how supervisor reports of conflict with their coworkers are related to abusive behaviors and resulting outcomes.We utilize research on displaced aggression, conflict, a nd leader–member exchange (LMX) theory to formulate our hypotheses. Results from two samples of 121 and 134 matched supervisor– subordinate dyads support the idea that supervisors experiencing coworker relationship conflict are likely to engage in abusive behaviors directed toward their subordinates and that LMX quality moderates this relationship. Additionally, abusive supervision was associated with decreased work effort and organizational citizenship behaviors (OCB).Results also indicate that in both samples abusive supervision mediates the relationships between supervisor reports of coworker relationship conflict and OCB, and in one sample mediates the association between supervisor-reported coworker relationship conflict and work effort.  © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. Available online 10 August 2011 Keywords: Abusive supervision Coworker relationship con? ict Multi-level 1. Introduction Abusive supervision, or the prolonged hostile treatment of subor dinates, has been recognized as a signi? ant threat to employee well being and productivity in both the popular press (e. g. , Elmer, 2006) and in organizational research (e. g. , Duffy, Ganster, & Pagon, 2002; Harris, Kacmar, & Zivnuska, 2007; Harvey, Stoner, Hochwarter, & Kacmar, 2007; Hoobler & Brass, 2006; Mitchell & Ambrose, 2007; Tepper, 2000, 2007; Tepper, Duffy, & Shaw, 2001; Zellars, Tepper, & Duffy, 2002). Behaviors that fall under the umbrella of abusive supervision, such as sabotaging, yelling at, or ignoring subordinates, have been linked to an array of negative consequences (see Tepper, 2007 for an overview).Research also suggests that these forms of abuse are alarmingly common in modern organizations (Namie & Namie, 2000; Tepper, 2007). The purpose of this study is to develop and test a conceptual model that expands our knowledge of antecedents, moderators, and consequences of abusive supervision. We also build on past research showing that supervisors' relationship c on? icts can â€Å"trickle down† to subordinates in the form of abusive behaviors (Aryee, Chen, Sun, & Debrah, 2007). Speci? cally, we test the notion that supervisors who experience relationship con? ct, de? ned as interpersonal â€Å"tension, animosity, and annoyance† (Jehn, 1995, p. 258), with their coworkers respond by abusing subordinates. The proposed relationship between supervisor-level coworker relationship con? ict and abusive supervision is rooted in the notion of displaced aggression, which occurs when the reaction to an unpleasant outcome or behavior from one source is redirected to a second source (Miller, Pedersen, Earlywine, & Pollock, 2003; Tedeschi & Norman, 1985).Consistent with Tepper (2007), we argue that the relatively weak retaliatory power of subordinates, as compared to coworkers, increases the likelihood that relationship con? ict-driven frustration will be vented at subordinates. We qualify this assumption, however, by arguing that supervisor s who experience coworker relationship con? ict will not behave abusively toward all of their subordinates. We explore ? Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: [email  protected] edu (K. J. Harris), Paul. [email  protected] edu (P. Harvey), [email  protected] ua. edu (K. M. Kacmar). 1048-9843/$ – see front matter  © 2011 Elsevier Inc.All rights reserved. doi:10. 1016/j. leaqua. 2011. 07. 020 K. J. Harris et al. / The Leadership Quarterly 22 (2011) 1010–1023 1011 this idea by examining leader–member relationship (LMX) quality as a moderator of the relationship between supervisors' levels of coworker relationship con? ict and abusive supervision. Finally, we advance the extant research by investigating two supervisorrated employee outcomes (work effort, and organizational citizenship behaviors (OCB)), one of which has not previously been examined in the context of abusive supervision.These outcomes were chosen as they extend the literature and we were int erested in actual behaviors directed toward the job/task (work effort and task-focused OCB). We examine these relationships, shown in Fig. 1, in two separate samples of matched supervisor–subordinate dyads. Thus, the current study makes several contributions to the literature. First, we examine the in? uence of con? ict between supervisors on subordinate reports of abusive supervision. Examining this relationship is important because although coworker relationship con? cts have negative outcomes, studies have yet to investigate how supervisors experiencing these con? icts treat their subordinates. Second, we investigate LMX quality as a relationship variable that changes how supervisor reports of coworker relationship con? ict and abusive supervision are related. Third, we extend the nomological network of abusive supervision by examining the outcomes of work effort and OCB. Finally, we investigate the potential for abusive supervision to mediate the associations between supe rvisor reports of coworker relationship con? ict and distal consequences.Thus, this study takes a ? rst step toward explaining how (through the intermediary mechanism of abusive supervision) supervisors' experiences of coworker relationship con? ict ultimately impact important job outcomes. 2. Abuse as a displaced response to coworker relationship con? ict Abusive supervision is de? ned as prolonged hostile treatment toward subordinates, excluding physical violence (Tepper, 2000). Research indicates that supervisors who perceive that they are victims of interactional or procedural injustice, both of which may be associated with coworker relationship con? ct (Fox, Spector, & Miles, 2001), are relatively more likely than others to abuse their subordinates (Aryee, Chen, Sun, & Debrah, 2007; Tepper, Duffy, Henle, & Lambert, 2006). Tepper, Duffy, Henle, and Lambert (2006) argued that this trickle-down effect, in which supervisors' frustrations are channeled into abusive behaviors targete d at subordinates, may occur because subordinates are a relatively safe target toward which supervisors can vent their frustrations (Tepper, Duffy, Henle, & Lambert, 2006).This argument suggests abusive supervision may be a response to frustrating workplace events such as coworker relationship con? ict. Coworker con? ict has been linked to undesirable emotional states and can negatively impact interpersonal relationships (e. g. , Bergmann & Volkema, 1994; Deutch, 1969). Emotion research suggests that the anger and frustration associated with interpersonal con? ict can promote verbal (e. g. , shouting) and behavioral (e. g. , theft, sabotage, violence) aggression toward those who stimulate the con? ct (e. g. , Ambrose, Seabright, & Schminke, 2002; Dollard, Doob, Miller, Mowrer, & Sears, 1939; Fox & Spector, 1999; Greenberg, 1990; Spector, 1975). Many of these behaviors, with the exception of physical violence, would fall under Tepper's (2000) de? nition of abusive supervision if aime d at subordinates. Drawing on ? ndings from research on displaced aggression we argue that, due to the relative power of supervisors' coworkers, these relationship con? ict-driven behaviors might, in fact, be targeted at subordinates.Displaced aggression occurs when individuals experience mistreatment from one party and respond by mistreating a second party (Hoobler & Brass, 2006, Miller, Pedersen, Earlywine & Pollock, 2003, Twenge & Campbell, 2003). Several triggers of displaced aggression have been identi? ed, including social rejection (Twenge & Campbell, 2003) and negative feedback (Bushman & Baumeister, 1998). Hoobler and Brass (2006) also showed that abusive supervision at work can promote displaced aggression toward family members at home. We examine abusive supervision as a form of displaced aggression ather than a predictor, although both conceptualizations are logical. Displaced aggression is often triggered by unpleasant workplace events (e. g. , Miller, Pedersen, Earlywi ne & Pollock, 2003) and abusive supervision ? ts this criteria. We argue that abusive supervision also can ? t the criteria of displaced aggression if it is triggered by events beyond the control of subordinates, such as the abusers' coworker relationship con? ict. Thus, abusive supervision can likely be both a cause of displaced aggression and a type of displaced aggression.Note: Dashed lines represent hypothesized mediated linkages Supervisor-Rated Subordinate Work Effort Supervisor-Rated Coworker Conflict Abusive Supervision Supervisor-Rated Subordinate TaskFocused OCB Moderator: Leader-Member Exchange Fig. 1. Hypothesized model. 1012 K. J. Harris et al. / The Leadership Quarterly 22 (2011) 1010–1023 As Tepper, Duffy, Henle and Lambert (2006) argued, abusive supervision can be used as a means for venting frustration because subordinates have relatively low levels of retaliatory power and, therefore, serve as a lower-risk target for venting behaviors than do employees in po sitions of greater hierarchical power.Victim precipitation research also supports this logic, indicating that displaced aggression is often targeted at those who are unable or unwilling to defend themselves, as is likely the case among subordinates who can be disciplined and terminated by their supervisors (e. g. , Aquino, 2000). This desire to vent frustration at individuals who are unassociated with the initial con? ict, similar to the anecdotal notion of â€Å"kicking the dog† after a bad day at work, can be understood in the context of displaced aggression. Coworker relationship con? ct is a potent source of stress and frustration (Thomas, 1976, 1992) and, because these are unpleasant, individuals are motivated to engage in coping behaviors that will diminish their presence (Kemper, 1966). These emotion-driven coping behaviors can often take the form of hostile behaviors such as sabotage (Ambrose, Seabright & Schminke, 2002) and verbal assaults (Douglas & Martinko, 2001). Thus, coworker relationship con? ict may trigger aggressive behaviors (e. g. , yelling at others) that serve a coping function. Thomas (1976) noted, however, that the relative power of the parties to a con? ct in? uences the manner in which both parties will respond. When legitimate power levels are equal, as in the case of coworkers, hostile responses are likely to be met with retaliation although it is possible that the target of retaliation will respond with additional hostility, creating an escalating cycle of con? ict. Subordinates, on the other hand, are often reluctant to respond in kind to hostile supervisor behaviors for fear of losing their jobs. The fact that subordinates are not the cause of the supervisor's frustration, that is, the frustration is caused by supervisors' con? ct with their coworkers, may have little impact on the behavioral response if the behavior is largely motivated by emotion as opposed to logic. That is, the desire to vent anger over coworker relat ionship con? ict using a safe target may override concerns that subordinates are not the logical targets for retaliation, given that they are not the cause of the con? ict. Based on these arguments, we predict: Hypothesis 1. Supervisors' reports of coworker relationship con? ict are positively associated with abusive supervisory behaviors, as rated by subordinates. 2. 1. The moderating in? ence of LMX relationship quality Thomas (1976, 1992) argued that a conceptualization process occurs between the con? ict experience and the behavioral outcome in which information is processed and behavioral options are evaluated. Although this cognitive process is likely to incorporate a wide range of information, we argue that an evaluation of relationships with subordinates is particularly relevant when behaviors toward these individuals are concerned. LMX theory suggests that the quality of leader–member relationships varies from high to low (Dienesch & Liden, 1986; Graen & Uhl-Bien, 19 95).Subordinates in high quality exchanges are seen more favorably and receive advantages from their supervisors that their low quality LMX counterparts do not (e. g. , Liden, Sparrowe, & Wayne, 1997). As such, members in high quality exchanges receive preferential treatment from supervisors who are motivated to maintain these productive relationships. We expect that supervisors who experience high levels of coworker relationship con? ict may become abusive toward subordinates, but will be selective in choosing which subordinates to target. Abusive supervisory behaviors generally have a negative effect on ictims' levels of motivation and attitudes toward their jobs (e. g. , Duffy, Ganster & Pagon, 2002; Schat, Desmarais, & Kelloway, 2006). Although it can be argued that effective managers would not want to risk these consequences with any employees, LMX theory would suggest that supervisors are especially motivated to maintain effective relationships with their high quality LMX subo rdinates. We argue, therefore, that supervisors who are frustrated by coworker relationship con? ict and who choose to react in an abusive manner will generally choose low quality LMX subordinates as their targets.Put differently, we expect that when con? ict-driven abuse occurs, members in low quality exchanges will experience it more strongly and frequently than members in high quality exchanges. Justice and victim precipitation theories provide additional support for this argument (e. g. , Aquino, 2000; Bies & Moag, 1986). From a justice perspective, instead of perceiving members of low quality LMX relationships as less risky targets for abuse, it can also be argued that supervisors ? nd it easier to justify abuse toward these employees. Members of low quality exchanges are often characterized by relatively low performance levels (e. . , Deluga & Perry, 1994; Liden, Wayne, & Stilwell, 1993), and it might be argued that supervisors who use abusive behaviors to cope with relationsh ip con? ict-driven frustration will feel most justi? ed in focusing on these employees. That is, supervisors might rationalize the abuse by convincing themselves that relatively lowperforming subordinates in low quality LMX relationships deserve the abusive behavior. Victim precipitation research also suggests that several characteristics common among low quality LMX subordinates make them likely targets of abuse.Although provocative and threatening behaviors have been linked to retaliatory aggression (e. g. , Aquino & Byron, 2002; Tepper, 2007), more salient to our focus on leader–member relationships is the precipitation research indicating that abusive individuals often target those who are seen as weak or defenseless. Individuals who are hesitant to defend themselves or view themselves or their situations negatively appear to draw the attention of aggressive individuals (Aquino, 2000; Olweus, 1978; Rahim, 1983; Tepper, 2007).As discussed above, the hierarchical nature of their relationship likely promotes the former tendency among subordinates, making them relatively safe targets for abuse. Members in low quality exchanges, in particular, might be unwilling to further jeopardize their relationship with their supervisors by retaliating against abuse and might also internalize their undesirable status, promoting the negative perceptions of their workplace competence and situation (e. g. , Ferris, Brown, & Heller, 2009) that can provoke victimization.Similar to our arguments concerning displaced abuse of subordinates, victim precipitation research suggests that these aggressors might wish to engage in abusive behavior as a means to K. J. Harris et al. / The Leadership Quarterly 22 (2011) 1010–1023 1013 preserve their social standing and bolster perceptions of their control over a situation (e. g. , Baumeister, Smart, & Boden, 1996; Felson, 1978). As such, this line of research reinforces the notion that subordinates might be targeted for displac ed abuse and suggests that low quality LMX subordinates are especially likely to be viewed as vulnerable, and therefore relatively safe, targets.Based on these arguments, we predict: Hypothesis 2. The relationship between supervisor-reported coworker relationship con? ict and member-reported abusive supervision is moderated by LMX, such that the positive relationship is stronger when LMX relationship quality is lower. 2. 2. Outcomes of abusive supervision The outcome portion of our conceptual model, shown in Fig. 1, examines the effects of abusive supervisory responses to coworker relationship con? ict on work effort and OCB. While we do not posit that abusive supervision is the only factor mediating the relationships between supervisors' coworker relationship con? ct and these outcomes, we argue that abuse can serve as an explanatory mechanism and explain a relevant amount of variance in each consequence. Abusive supervision is a negative workplace event that, like con? ict, can ha ve negative attitudinal and behavioral consequences (Tepper, 2007; Tepper, Henle, Lambert, Giacalone, & Duffy, 2008; Tepper, Moss, Lockhart, & Carr, 2007). It has been argued that these outcomes are caused by the stress and emotional strain associated with abuse from individuals in a position of power (e. g. Duffy, Ganster & Pagon, 2002; Harvey, Stoner, Hochwarter & Kacmar, 2007; Tepper, 2000). Further, Duffy, Ganster and Pagon (2002) found evidence suggesting that abuse promotes diminished self-ef? cacy. As we discuss in the following sections, each of these consequences of abusive supervision can be logically linked to the outcomes depicted in Fig. 1. 2. 2. 1. Work effort Because abusive supervision can diminish victims' con? dence in their abilities (Duffy, Ganster & Pagon, 2002), it follows that motivation to exert high levels of effort at work will likely decrease in response to abuse.Abusive supervisors, who by de? nition are consistent in their abuse (Tepper, 2000), might eve ntually wear employees down with a steady onslaught of aggressive behavior (e. g. , yelling, criticizing), reducing their con? dence and motivation. Similarly, it may be that over time abusive supervision promotes emotional exhaustion (Harvey, Stoner, Hochwarter & Kacmar, 2007; Tepper, 2000), a condition characterized by diminished emotional and physical coping abilities and closely associated with job burnout (Brewer & Shapard, 2004; Cropanzano, Rupp, & Byrne, 2003).Harvey, Stoner, Hochwarter and Kacmar (2007) argued that this relationship was likely due to the persistent assault on employees' feelings and ef? cacy perceptions (Savicki & Cooley, 1983) associated with abusive supervision. When emotional exhaustion occurs, individuals demonstrate diminished motivation and a reduced ability to handle stressful work events, promoting a reduction in work effort (Brewer & Shapard, 2004; Kahill, 1988; Leiter & Maslach, 1988).Using a different lens to view the abuse–work effort asso ciation, employees might also view abusive supervision as a form of psychological contract breach, as subordinates generally do not expect to be abused by those given the authority to supervise them (Tepper, 2000). When employees perceive that a breach has taken place, they often feel less compelled to ful? ll their obligation to exert high levels of work effort (Harris, Kacmar & Zivnuska, 2007). 2. 2. 2. Citizenship behaviors The ? nal outcome depicted in Fig. 1 concerns the negative in? ence of coworker relationship con? ict-driven abuse and subordinates' propensity to engage in OCB. This predicted relationship is based on research indicating that abusive supervision is associated with factors, including decreased organizational commitment, poor work-related attitudes, and injustice perceptions (Aryee, Chen, Sun & Debrah, 2007; Duffy, Ganster & Pagon, 2002; Schat, Desmarais, & Kelloway, 2006; Zellars, Tepper & Duffy, 2002), that can inhibit citizenship behaviors (Ambrose, Seabrigh t & Schminke, 2002; Zellars, Tepper & Duffy, 2002).Victims of abusive supervision often feel that they have been treated unjustly (Tepper, 2000), a perception that is associated with reduced levels of OCB (Moorman, 1991). As Judge, Scott, and Ilies (2006) argued, unjust treatment is likely to qualify as a negative affective event and can therefore provoke a retaliatory behavioral response. One such response could logically be the withholding of citizenship behaviors, which are not a requirement of the job and could run counter to the goal of retaliation by making the supervisor's job easier (e. g. , Zellars, Tepper & Duffy, 2002).In support of this reasoning, additional research indicates that abusive supervision motivates retaliatory behaviors such as workplace deviance and aggression that run contrary to the notion of citizenship behavior (Dupre, Inness, Connelly, Barling, & Hoption, 2006; Schaubhut, Adams, & Jex, 2004). Based on these arguments, we predict: Hypothesis 3. Abusive supervision is negatively related to supervisor reports of subordinate work effort and organizational citizenship behaviors. 2. 3. The mediating role of abusive supervision We have argued that relationship con? ct between supervisors and their coworkers is associated with abusive supervisory behaviors, and that such behaviors have negative implications for victims' levels of work effort and OCB. Implicit in this line of reasoning is the notion that coworker relationship con? ict at the supervisor level is ultimately associated with decreased levels of 1014 K. J. Harris et al. / The Leadership Quarterly 22 (2011) 1010–1023 effort and OCB at the subordinate level, and that abusive supervision acts a mediator between these variables. More speci? ally, the negative effects of supervisors' relationship con? ict with their coworkers are predicted to manifest themselves in the form of abusive behaviors that negatively affect employees' attitudes and behaviors, promoting negative sub ordinate outcomes. Thus, while a relationship between a supervisor's level of coworker relationship con? ict and subordinates' levels of effort and OCB may seem somewhat abstract, we suggest that coworker relationship con? ict-driven abusive supervision provides an intermediary link between these variables.Based on these arguments, we predict: Hypothesis 4. Abusive supervision mediates the negative relationships between supervisor-rated coworker relationship con? ict and work effort and organizational citizenship behaviors. 3. Method 3. 1. Samples and procedures The samples utilized in this study were from two different divisions of a state government. The division in Sample 1 was responsible for handling disease related issues (e. g. , STDs, immunizations, tuberculosis), whereas the division in Sample 2 handled environmental health related issues (e. g. , radiation, clean water).To begin the data collection efforts, the director of each division sent an email to all employees in th eir branch. The email informed the potential respondents of the study's purpose, that participation was voluntary, and that the results would be con? dential. After this email, the researchers sent a personalized message again explaining the goal of the survey, the con? dentiality of responses, and a web link to the survey. Respondents were asked to complete the survey during the next month. Respondents were required to provide their supervisor's name to match supervisor–subordinate responses.At the same time, supervisors were asked to provide ratings on each of their direct reports. In Sample 1, eliminating responses with missing data or those that were unable to be matched (i. e. , we received a subordinate response, but not a matching supervisor response) resulted in a sample size of 121 (58% response rate). Subordinates were 68% female, the average age was 41. 68 years, the average job tenure was 3. 38 years, and their average organizational tenure was 5. 22 years. In tot al, 28 supervisors provided ratings, resulting in an average of 4. 32 ratings per supervisor.For the supervisors, the demographic breakdown was 57% female, the average age was 47. 91 years, the average job tenure was 4. 79 years, and their average organizational tenure was 7. 73 years. After the elimination of unusable responses in Sample 2, our usable sample size was 134 (64% response rate). Participants in Sample 2 were 60% male, had an average age of 46. 04 years, average job tenure of 7. 04 years, and average organizational tenure of 11. 51 years. Forty-four supervisors provided ratings, which resulted in an average of 3. 05 ratings per supervisor.The demographic breakdown for the supervisors was 75% male, an average age of 49. 29 years, average job tenure of 9. 64 years, and average organizational tenure of 16. 26 years. 3. 2. Measures Unless otherwise noted, a 5-point Likert scale (anchors: â€Å"strongly disagree† (1) to â€Å"strongly agree† (5)) was used for a ll survey items. Scales were coded with high values representing high levels of the constructs. 3. 3. Subordinate measures 3. 3. 1. Abusive supervision In both samples abusive supervision was measured with six items from Tepper's (2000) measure.We were unable to use the full 15-item measure due to management concerns about the survey's overall length. Thus, we had experts in the area look at the content of each of the items, and we chose 6 items that best captured the full range of abusive supervisory behaviors. The items we chose were â€Å"My supervisor makes negative comments about me to others,† â€Å"My supervisor gives me the silent treatment,† â€Å"My supervisor expresses anger at me when he/she is mad for another reason,† â€Å"My supervisor is rude to me,† â€Å"My supervisor breaks promises he/she makes,† and â€Å"My supervisor puts me down in front of others. In an effort to establish the validity of our shortened scale, we compared o ur reduced scale to the full measure using the data from the Tepper (2000) article. 1 We found that the full 15-item scale was correlated with our 6-item scale at . 96. The Cronbach alpha for the scale was . 90 for Sample 1 and . 92 for Sample 2. 3. 3. 2. Leader–member exchange We used Liden and Maslyn's (1998) 12-item leader–member exchange multidimensional scale to measure exchange quality in both samples. A sample item included â€Å"My supervisor would defend me to others in the organization if I made an honest mistake. The Cronbach alpha for the scale was . 94 for Sample 1 and . 92 for Sample 2. 1 We thank Ben Tepper for allowing us to use his original data for this correlation. K. J. Harris et al. / The Leadership Quarterly 22 (2011) 1010–1023 1015 3. 4. Supervisor measures 3. 4. 1. Coworker relationship con? ict In both samples supervisors rated their relationship con? icts with their coworkers using the 4-item Jehn (1995) scale. A sample item included à ¢â‚¬Å"Is there tension among your coworkers? † These questions were included in a section of the survey here the supervisors were answering questions about their attitudes, behaviors, and relationships with their coworkers. This section was separate from the section where supervisors commented on their subordinates, thus making it clear that these relationship con? ict questions were focused on coworkers at their level in the organization (e. g. , managers' relationship con? icts with other managers). The response scale for this construct was â€Å"Not at all (1)† to â€Å"To a very great extent (5)†. The Cronbach alpha for the scale was . 95 for Sample 1 and . 94 for Sample 2. 3. 4. 2.Work effort In both samples supervisors rated subordinates' work effort using Brown and Leigh's (1996) 5-item scale. A sample item was â€Å"When there's a job to be done, this subordinate devotes all his/her energy to getting it done. † The Cronbach alpha for the scale was . 93 for Sample 1 and . 94 for Sample 2. 3. 4. 3. Organizational citizenship behaviors Supervisors responded to Settoon and Mossholder's (2002) 6-item scale to measure subordinate task-focused OCB in both samples. A sample item was â€Å"This subordinate assists coworkers with heavy work loads even though it is not part of the job. The Cronbach alpha for the scale was . 84 for Sample 1 and . 81 for Sample 2. 3. 5. Control variables We controlled for four variables, all measured from the subordinate, in an effort to minimize potentially spurious relationships. The variables we controlled for were age (measured in years), job tenure (measured in months), organizational tenure (measured in months), and supervisor–subordinate relationship tenure (measured in months). 3. 6. Analytical approach In both samples in this study, supervisors' coworker relationship con? ict responses were used as predictors of subordinate outcomes (i. . , cross-level main effect). Thus, a single supervi sor coworker relationship con? ict rating was used as the predictor variable for multiple subordinates. As a result, for these variables there was no within-supervisor variance and all of the variance was between supervisors (i. e. , ICCs were 1. 00). Additionally, supervisors provided ratings on certain scales (e. g. , work effort and OCB) for multiple subordinates, thus resulting in a supervisor effect (e. g. , ICC1s for OCB of . 11 in sample 1 and . 13 and sample 2, and ICC2s of . 48 in sample 1 and . 51 in sample 2).To account for the supervisor-level effect in our data, hierarchical linear modeling (HLM: Raudenbush, Bryk, Cheong, & Congdon, 2004) with grand-mean centering was used to carry out our analyses. In the HLM analyses involving supervisor-rated coworker relationship con? ict, this variable was included as a Level 2 variable (Raudenbush, Bryk, Cheong & Congdon, 2004). To test Hypotheses 1–2, there were four steps. In the ? rst step, we entered the four control va riables. In the second step we entered the Level 2 variable of supervisor-rated coworker relationship con? ict, and it was here that we tested Hypothesis 1.In the third step, we entered the Level 1 moderator variable, LMX. In the fourth step, we entered the cross-level interaction term formed between supervisor-rated coworker relationship con? ict and LMX. It was in this step that we tested Hypothesis 2. To test the abusive supervision-outcome and mediation hypotheses (3 and 4), we conducted Baron and Kenny's (1986) threestep procedure. The HLM equations are available from the ? rst author request. 4. Results The means, standard deviations, and correlation matrix for the variables in this study are provided in Table 1 for Sample 1 and Table 2 for Sample 2.In both samples abusive supervision was signi? cantly correlated with supervisor reports of coworker relationship con? ict, as well as our dependent variables. Given that a few of the correlations between our focal variables were h igh, we elected to run a series of con? rmatory factor analyses (CFA) on the scales used in our study to ensure that they were independent and that the items produced the expected factor structures. These analyses were run on both samples separately. To conduct our CFAs, we used LISREL 8. 80, a covariance matrix as input, and a maximum-likelihood estimation.We elected to conduct our CFA analyses using composite indicators rather than items due to the large number of items and our moderate sample sizes. To create our composite indicators, we assigned items based on factor loadings from an exploratory factor analysis (Bagozzi & Heatherton, 1994; Eddleston, Viega, & Powell, 2006). Speci? cally, for our four-item scales we combined the two items with the highest and lowest factor loadings to the ? rst indicator and the remaining two items to the second indicator. For the ? ve-item scales we created the ? st indicator as described above and included the remaining three items on the secon d indicator. For our six-item scale we paired the highest and lowest loading item to create the ? rst indicator and then repeated this process for the remaining two indicators. Finally, for the LMX scale we used the four subscales (loyalty, contribution, professional respect, and affect) as composite indicators. Our approach resulted in 15 indicators for our 6 scales. 1016 K. J. Harris et al. / The Leadership Quarterly 22 (2011) 1010–1023 Table 1 Means, standard deviations, and intercorrelations among study variables in Sample 1.Variable 1. Abusive supervision 2. Sup. coworker con? ict 3. Leader–member exchange (LMX) 4. Work effort 5. OCB 6. LMX affect 7. LMX contribution 8. LMX loyalty 9. LMX professional respect 10. Age 11. Job tenure 12. Organizational tenure 13. Relationship tenure Mean 1. 31 3. 03 3. 92 4. 03 3. 87 3. 86 4. 10 3. 69 4. 03 41. 68 3. 38 5. 22 1. 99 SD . 57 1. 02 . 77 . 79 . 72 . 97 . 68 . 84 1. 09 11. 1 3. 88 5. 23 2. 02 1 . 77 . 21? ? . 67 ? . 27 ? . 29 .60 .36 .69 .62 .10 . 10 . 05 . 25 2 . 95 ? .11 ? .20? ? . 18? ? . 05 . 04 . 19? ? . 14 . 01 . 23? .01 . 17 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 .76 . 3 .35 .91 .77 .83 .90 ? . 00 . 05 . 08 ? .00 .86 . 40 .28 .22? .35 .28 .03 ? .00 . 10 . 00 .65 . 27 .22? .33 .35 .01 ? .03 . 05 . 12 .92 . 62 .68 .79 ? . 02 . 11 . 11 . 04 .75 . 56 .58 .11 . 05 . 11 . 04 .74 . 64 ? . 04 ? .01 . 05 ? .11 .94 ? .03 . 02 . 01 . 02 – . 35 .39 .26 – . 69 .48 – . 49 Note: Values in italics on the diagonal are the square root of the average variance explained which must be larger than all zero-order correlations in the row and column in which they appear to demonstrate discriminant validity (Fornell & Larcker, 1981).N = 121. ? p b . 05. p b . 01. We began by estimating a six-factor solution, with each factor representing a scale in our study. Fit indices, shown in Table 3, indicate that the six-factor model ? t the data. To verify that the six-factor structure was the best representation of our data, we estimated three alternative models and compared them to our baseline model via chi-square difference tests. The alternative models estimated included two ? ve-factor models and a unidimensional model. The alternative models were created by combining scales that had strong correlations to form a larger factor.The ? rst alternative model combined abusive supervision and LMX into one factor while the second combined OCB and work effort. A description of each alternative model and the CFA results are offered in Table 3. As shown in Table 3, the chi-square difference test results support the six-factor structure as originally designed. To further explore the discriminant validity of our scales we followed the procedure outlined by Fornell and Larcker (1981) and calculated the square root of the average variance explained for each of the scales in our study.This value, which we present on the diagonal in Tables 1 and 2, represents the variance accounted for by the items that com pose the scale. To demonstrate discriminant validity, this value must exceed the corresponding latent variable correlations in the same row and column. If this condition is met, then we have evidence that the variance shared between any two constructs is less than the average variance explained by the items that compose the scale (i. e. , discriminant validity). As shown in Tables 1 and 2, this condition is met for all of the scales used in our study.The HLM results predicting abusive supervision are shown in Tables 4 (for Sample 1) and 5 (for Sample 2) and the HLM results investigating abusive supervision as a mediator and/or predictor are provided in Tables 6 and 7. First describing our interaction results in Table 4, step 1 reveals that relationship tenure (? = . 08, p b . 05) was the only control variable signi? cantly associated with abusive supervision. Step 2 shows that supervisor reports of coworker relationship con? ict are positively and signi? cantly related to abusive su pervision (? = . 09, p b . 05).This result provides support for Hypothesis 1 in Sample 1. Step 3 in this analysis shows that LMX was negatively associated with abusive supervision (? = ?. 48, p b . 01). Finally, step 4 shows that the interaction term between supervisor reports of coworker relationship con? ict and LMX was negatively and signi? cantly related to abusive Table 2 Means, standard deviations, and intercorrelations among study variables in Sample 2. Variable 1. Abusive supervision 2. Sup. coworker con? ict 3. LMX12 (overall) 4. Work effort 5. OCB 6. LMX affect 7. LMX contribution 8. LMX loyalty 9.LMX professional respect 10. Age 11. Job tenure 12. Organizational tenure 13. Relationship tenure Mean 1. 32 2. 42 4. 04 4. 31 4. 31 4. 04 4. 15 3. 78 4. 19 45. 86 6. 55 11. 16 6. 08 SD . 58 . 76 . 60 . 73 . 67 . 78 . 56 . 78 . 95 6. 89 2. 66 4. 37 2. 12 1 . 92 . 15? ? . 55 ? . 26 ? . 21? ? . 53 .05 ? .52 ? . 57 .04 . 02 . 01 ? .01 2 . 94 ? .04 ? .03 ? .19? ? . 03 ? .06 ? .02 ? . 02 ? .15 ? .09 ? .07 . 00 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 .92 . 09 . 05 . 84 .53 .83 .86 ? . 07 . 08 . 05 . 07 .87 . 72 ? . 01 ? .03 . 18? .11 ? .03 ? .00 . 03 ? .02 .85 . 01 ? .13 . 09 . 13 ? .13 . 1 ? .05 . 07 .88 . 28 .56 .69 ? . 10 . 05 ? .03 . 00 .71 . 38 .22? .08 . 16* . 18? .15 .84 . 59 ? . 08 . 03 . 03 . 01 .95 ? .06 . 04 . 01 . 08 – . 14 . 23 .18? – . 61 .27 – . 26 Note: Values in italics on the diagonal are the square root of the average variance explained which must be larger than all zero-order correlations in the row and column in which they appear to demonstrate discriminant validity (Fornell & Larcker, 1981). N = 134. ? p b . 05. p b . 01. K. J. Harris et al. / The Leadership Quarterly 22 (2011) 1010–1023 Table 3 Alternative model test results.Model Sample 1 (N = 121) Baseline 6-factor model 5-factor combining abuse and LMX 5-factor combining work effort and OCB 1-factor Sample 2 (N = 134) Baseline 6-factor model 5-factor combining abuse and LMX 5- factor combining work effort and OCB 1-factor X2 102 196 127 706 df 75 80 80 90 X2diff dfdiff CFI . 98 . 95 . 97 . 59 NFI . 95 . 91 . 94 . 57 1017 RMSEA . 048 . 093 . 059 . 200 94 25 604 5 5 15 112 276 224 1177 75 80 80 90 164 112 1065 5 5 15 .98 . 93 . 93 . 47 .94 . 89 . 89 . 46 .056 . 125 . 107 . 280 Note: Abuse = abusive supervision, LMX = leader–member exchange, OCB = organizational citizenship behaviors. p b . 001. supervision (? = ?. 12, p b . 01). Overall, the results in Table 5 (Sample 2) are similar. In step 1 none of the control variables were signi? cantly associated with the outcome, but in step 2, supervisor reports of coworker relationship con? ict were positively and signi? cantly related to abusive supervision (? = . 11, p b . 05), again supporting Hypothesis 1. Step 3 in Table 5 shows that LMX was negatively associated with abusive supervision (? = ?. 54, p b . 01). In the ? nal step, the supervisor reported coworker relationship con? ict ? LMX interaction t erm was negatively and signi? antly related to abusive supervision (? = ? .29, p b . 05). To determine support for our interaction hypothesis, we graphed the two signi? cant moderating effects. We did so by plotting two slopes, one at one standard deviation below and one at one standard deviation above the mean (Stone & Hollenbeck, 1989). Figs. 2 (for Sample 1) and 3 (for Sample 2) illustrate the signi? cant interactions and show that the positive relationships between supervisor reports of coworker relationship con? ict and abusive supervision were stronger when LMX relationship quality was lower.Additionally, we calculated simple slopes for each of our interactions. In sample 1, we found that the slope of the low LMX line was signi? cant (t = 2. 00, p b . 05), whereas the slope of the high LMX line was not signi? cant. Similar to sample 1, in sample 2 the slope of the low LMX was signi? cant (t = 2. 11, p b . 05), but the slope of the high LMX line was not signi? cant. In total, t hese results provide support for Hypothesis 2 in both samples. Tables 6 and 7 provide the results of our mediation analyses. First discussing the results from Sample 1 shown in Table 6, supervisor-reported coworker relationship con? ct was signi? cantly related to abusive supervision (? = . 09, p b . 05) (which ful? lls one of Baron and Kenny's (1986) mediation requirements) and to OCB (? = ? .08, p b . 10) and work effort (? = ?. 14, p b . 05) (ful? lling another mediation requirement). Steps 2c and 3c show that when both supervisor reports of coworker relationship con? ict and abusive supervision are entered into the equation, the coworker relationship con? ict variable is no longer signi? cant. In particular, the gammas for supervisor-reported coworker relationship con? ict predicting OCB dropped from ?. 08 to ?. 6 and for predicting work effort dropped from ?. 14 to ? .11. However, abusive supervision is signi? cantly and positively related to OCB (? = ?. 37, p b . 01) and signi ? cantly and negatively related to work effort (? = ?. 27, p b . 05). Thus, Hypothesis 3 is supported in Sample 1. In terms of the mediation results, the results from Baron and Kenny's (1986) three-step procedure show that abusive supervision fully mediated the relationship between supervisor-rated coworker relationship con? ict and OCB and partially mediated the relationship with work effort. Thus, Hypothesis 4 was supported in Sample 1.Table 4 Hierarchical linear modeling results predicting abusive supervision in Sample 1. Step 1 Control variables: Age Job tenure Organizational tenure Relationship tenure Independent variable Sup-rated coworker con? ict (A) Moderator: LMX (B) Interaction term: A? B ? R2 . 00 . 00 ? .01 . 08? Step 2 . 00 ? .00 ? .01 . 07 . 09? Step 3 . 00 . 00 ? .00 . 07? .05? ? . 48 Step 4 . 00 ? .00 ? .00 . 06? .05 ? .46 ? . 12 .02 .02 .02 .45 Note: Sup-rated coworker con? ict = supervisor-rated coworker relationship con? ict, LMX = leader–member exchange. N = 121. ? p b . 05. p b . 01. 018 K. J. Harris et al. / The Leadership Quarterly 22 (2011) 1010–1023 Table 5 Hierarchical linear modeling results predicting abusive supervision in Sample 2. Step 1 Control variables: Age Job tenure Organizational tenure Relationship tenure Independent variable Sup-rated coworker con? ict (A) Moderator: LMX (B) Interaction term: A? B ? R2 . 00 . 00 ? .00 ? .00 Step 2 . 01 .00 ? .00 ? .00 . 11? Step 3 ? .00 . 00 ? .00 . 00 . 09? ? . 54 Step 4 . 00 . 00 ? .00 . 00 . 13? ? . 55 ? . 29 .05 .01 .01 .35 Note: Sup-rated coworker con? ict = supervisor-rated coworker relationship con? ct, LMX = leader–member exchange. N = 134. ? p b . 05. p b . 01. Next we turn to the HLM results presented for Sample 2 in Table 7. This table shows that supervisor-reported coworker relationship con? ict was signi? cantly related to abusive supervision in step 1b (which passes Baron and Kenny's (1986) ? rst step) and OCB (in step 2b), but not work effort (in ste p 3b). These results pass the ? rst two steps for mediation for OCB, but not work effort. Table 7 also reveals that abusive supervision is negatively and signi? cantly related to OCB (? = ?. 26, p b . 05) in step 2c, and signi? antly and negatively related to work effort (? = ?. 39, p b . 01) in step 3c. Thus, Hypothesis 3, which was supported in Sample 1, is also supported in Sample 2. Step 2c shows that when both supervisor reports of coworker relationship con? ict and abusive supervision are entered into the equation, the coworker relationship con? ict variable is no longer a signi? cant predictor of OCB. In terms of the mediation results, the results from Baron and Kenny's (1986) three-step procedure show that abusive supervision mediated the relationship between supervisor-rated coworker relationship con? ct and OCB, but not work effort. Thus, Hypothesis 4, which was supported for both dependent variables in Sample 1, was only supported for OCB in Sample 2. 5. Discussion The pu rpose of this study was to further our knowledge of the predictors and outcomes of abusive supervision. We pursued this goal by examining supervisor reports of relationship con? ict with their coworkers as a predictor of subordinate-rated abusive supervision, and LMX quality as a situational variable in? uencing this relationship. Additionally, we examined the outcomes of supervisor-rated OCB nd work effort and found that abusive supervision fully mediated the relationships between supervisor reports of coworker relationship con? ict and OCB in both samples and the outcomes of work effort in one sample. Returning to our theoretical arguments, we found that displaced aggression and LMX theories provide useful lenses for discussing predictors and outcomes of abusive supervision. Coworker relationship con? ict at any level is a potent source of stress and frustration as it impedes the achievement of goals and the attainment of desired outcomes (e. g. , Thomas, 1976).Like past abusive s upervision research (Tepper, Duffy, Henle & Lambert, 2006), our results suggest that some supervisors will resort to abusive behaviors against their employees as a means of coping with these consequences. This study advances existing research by explicitly examining situations where subordinates are not the logical target of retaliation (i. e. , they are not the source of the con? ict). Because subordinates are an easy and accessible target, however, having less power and less of an ability to retaliate, they make relatively safe candidates for abuse from frustrated supervisors.Table 6 Hierarchical linear modeling mediation results in Sample 1. DV = abusive supervision Step 1a Age Job tenure Organizational tenure Relationship tenure Supervisor-rated coworker relationship con? ict Abusive supervision Note: OCB = organizational citizenship behaviors. N = 121. ? p b . 05. p b . 01. .00 . 00 ? .01 . 08? Step 1b . 00 ? .00 ? .01 . 07 . 09? Step 2a . 00 ? .02 . 00 . 05 DV = OCB DV = work effort Step 2b . 00 ? .01 ? .00 . 05 ? .08+ Step 2c . 00 ? .01 ? .00 . 07 ? .06 ? .27? Step 3a ? .00 ? .02 . 02 . 00 Step 2b ? .00 ? .01 . 02 . 01 ? .14? Step 3c . 0 ? .01 . 01 . 04 . 11 ? .37 K. J. Harris et al. / The Leadership Quarterly 22 (2011) 1010–1023 Table 7 Hierarchical linear modeling mediation results in Sample 2. DV = abusive supervision Step 1a Age Job tenure Organizational tenure Relationship tenure Supervisor-rated coworker relationship con? ict Abusive supervision Note: OCB = organizational citizenship behaviors. N = 134. ? p b . 05. p b . 01. .00 . 00 ? .00 ? .00 Step 1b . 01 . 00 ? .00 ? .00 . 11? Step 2a ? .01 ? .00 . 00 . 00 DV = OCB DV = work effort 1019 Step 2b ? .01 ? .00 . 00 . 00 ? .13? Step 2c ? .01 . 0 ? .00 . 00 ? .09 ? .26? Step 3a ? .00 ? .00 . 00 ? .00 Step 3b ? .00 ? .00 . 00 ? .00 ? .03 Step 3c . 00 ? .00 . 00 ? .00 . 02 ? .39 Additionally, when supervisors experience coworker relationship con? ict, our results indicate that they are most l ikely to abuse subordinates with whom they have low quality LMX relationships. This ? nding appears to support our argument that supervisors will focus their abusive behaviors on those employees in low quality exchanges in order to shield their high quality relationships from the detrimental effects of abusive supervision.In this way, supervisors may reason that abusive behaviors allow them to vent frustration while minimizing the negative in? uence of this coping behavior on their most valued employees. Naturally, there are ? aws in this method of coping, most notably that the performance levels of abused employees will likely suffer, causing added strain and frustration for other employees and the supervisors themselves. Among supervisors who make the problematic choice to cope through abuse, however, it appears that employees in low-quality relationships are the most likely targets.We also extended abusive supervision research with our ? ndings indicating that this variable is re lated to the outcomes of OCB and work effort. These ? ndings are noteworthy as they extend the nomological network of outcomes related to abusive supervision, and because both outcomes were supervisor-rated, which helps to minimize common source bias concerns (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee, & Podsakoff, 2003). Additionally, in sample 1 we found that abusive supervision served as an intermediary mechanism explaining the relationships between supervisor reports of coworker relationship con? ct and both consequences examined, and that there was also mediation on the outcome of OCB in sample 2. These results are important as they begin to answer the questions related to how situational supervisor variables, such as coworker relationship con? ict, ultimately are translated into subordinate outcomes. Surprisingly, we did not ? nd support for the work effort mediation hypothesis in Sample 2. A post hoc explanation for these insigni? cant ? ndings may relate to the demographic composition of th e samples. Sample 2 was different from Sample 1 for both subordinates and supervisors.It was primarily male, the average age was higher, and average job and organizational tenure were both more than double (except for supervisor job tenure) those in the ? rst sample. Although it is possible to deduce explanations as to how these differences might have in? uenced our results, such atheoretical logic would be overly speculative. Thus, as we suggest below, we encourage replicative research in additional samples that would allow for a more systematic assessment of these, or other, sample-speci? c characteristics. 5. 1. Contributions These ? dings make several contributions to the extant research on abusive supervision and LMX relationships. First, they build support for the notion of displaced abusive supervision and undermine a potential alternative explanation. In Tepper's (2007) review of abusive supervision literature, he concluded that supervisors' perceptions of organization-level factors, such as Fig. 2. Moderating effect of LMX on the relationship between supervisor-rated coworker relationship con? ict and abusive supervision in Sample 1. 1020 K. J. Harris et al. / The Leadership Quarterly 22 (2011) 1010–1023Fig. 3. Moderating effect of LMX on the relationship between supervisor-rated coworker relationship con? ict and abusive supervision in Sample 2. injustice and contract violation, can trigger abuse toward individual targets (i. e. , subordinates). He argued that this phenomenon might be explained by displaced aggression logic, in that subordinates serve as safe abuse targets even if the abuse is unlikely to resolve the perceptions triggering the desire to be abusive. An alternative, although somewhat tenuous, explanation is that these negative perceptions in? ence animosity toward the overall organization and that supervisors justify the abuse of subordinates who are seen as complicit in the perceived negative aspects of the organization. Our ? ndings suggest that this alternative basis of justi? cation would not adequately explain displaced abusive supervision. Looking beyond generalized organizational perceptions, we found that even frustration stemming from speci? c, identi? able non-subordinate sources (i. e. , supervisors' coworkers) might translate into abuse toward subordinates.This suggests that abusive supervision may serve as a â€Å"self-defeating† coping mechanism (e. g. , Baumeister & Scher, 1988), akin to mechanisms such as problem drinking and procrastination, in that it seeks short-term stress-reduction (e. g. , through emotional venting) in a harmful way that does not address the true source of the underlying problem (e. g. , con? ict with peers). We also expand on Tepper's conclusion, again stemming from his 2007 review of abusive supervision research, that subordinate characteristics in? uence the likelihood that they will experience abuse.As in the present study, Tepper (2007) cited victimization research to argue that subordinates who appear overly provocative or passive put themselves at a heightened risk for abuse. Expanding on the latter idea, we argued and observed that employees in low quality LMX relationships, who we expect demonstrate relatively high levels of passivity and vulnerability, report higher levels of abuse. This suggests that instead of identifying each of the potential subordinate characteristics that can incite abuse, a more parsimonious approach might be to look at broad relationship variables such as LMX that can be viewed as re? cting the aggregate impact of these individual characteristics. This conclusion also adds to LMX research by revealing an additional consequence of low-quality LMX relationships. In addition to the wide body of research showing that low-quality LMX subordinates experience outcomes such as fewer rewards, lower resource levels, and reduced job satisfaction (e. g. , Liden, Sparrowe & Wayne, 1997), this study suggests a more se rious potential consequence in the form of victimization by abusive supervisors.Additionally, our results, and the fact that most were replicated across the two samples, demonstrate the utility of multi-level models for predicting employee consequences of abusive supervision. Abusive supervision is an inherently multi-level phenomenon and this study shows that insights into some causes of abuse, such as con? ict levels between supervisors, exist that cannot be assessed from subordinate self-reports. Similarly, it identi? es supervisor-rated subordinate outcomes of abusive supervision (effort levels and OCB) that are dif? cult to assess with self-reports due to social desirability and common source bias concerns.Further, these supervisor-rated effects provide some indication that abusive supervisors are at least indirectly aware of the selfdefeating consequences of abuse. Our data do not tell us whether supervisors consciously related their abuse to lower levels of employee effort an d citizenship behavior. Their awareness of lower levels among the abused subordinates, however, suggests that a degree of denial would be necessary for the supervisors to overlook these cause–effect relationships. Although existing research has not, to our knowledge, explicitly stated that supervisors are unaware of the consequences of abusive behavior, this ? ding suggests that future research on preventing abuse might bene? t from focusing not on why supervisors view the behavior as acceptable, but why they engage in it despite an apparent awareness of these consequences. 5. 2. Limitations In addition to the aforementioned strengths and contributions, there are limitations that we must acknowledge to properly interpret the study's results. First we acknowledge that the theoretical framework we have developed is not the only logical explanation for the hypothesized and observed relationships.For example, it is plausible that the link between supervisors' coworker relationshi p con? ict and abusive supervision is less cognitive than we have argued. Instead of selectively choosing subordinates as a low-risk target for venting frustration, it might be that some supervisors simply possess traits that predispose K. J. Harris et al. / The Leadership Quarterly 22 (2011) 1010–1023 1021 them toward con? ict and abusive behaviors (with higher levels of abuse directed at low quality members). Examples of such traits might include negative affectivity or hostile attribution styles (Douglas & Martinko, 2001).An investigation of these possibilities would be useful in forming a more comprehensive understanding of the empirical relationships observed in the present study. In terms of methodological limitations, survey length constraints required us to use a reduced version of the abusive supervision scale. Even though we chose items that tapped into the full set of behaviors and found an extremely high correlation between our shortened measure and the full scale , this may still be viewed as a limitation. Another limitation is that we were unable to measure causality.Thus, there is the potential that our relationships actually have reverse causality or that variables predict each other in a recursive manner. This is particularly true regarding the association between LMX perceptions and abusive supervision. Our results suggest that supervisors are more abusive toward some employees than others and that this difference is associated with variations in subordinates' LMX scores. It can be argued, and is indeed very likely, that an abused employee would report lower LMX scores because of the abuse.The ? nding that supervisors are selective in their abuse targets suggests that some criterion is evaluated before targets are chosen and we have argued that preexisting LMX relationship qualities could serve as this criterion. Our design does not allow us to make this claim de? nitively, however. Similarly, it may be that abusive supervision is not t he predictor of work effort, but that insuf? cient effort by subordinates promotes higher levels of abusive supervision or that both variables in? uence each other in a cyclical manner.We are particularly sensitive to the argument that there may be a feedback loop between abusive supervision and the outcome variables, such that abuse reduces subordinates' effort and citizenship levels, and this reduction provokes further abuse, although the design of the study did not allow us to test this possibility. Along a similar line, it could be that abusive supervision toward subordinates is actually the cause of the supervisors' con? ict among peers. We hope that future studies will be designed to better answer these causality questions.There are also limitations associated with the sampling of public, white-collar organizations. Different organizations (e. g. , private, military, blue-collar) have different rules and norms governing behavior and it is likely that the abusive supervisory be haviors studied would be more or less permissible, and therefore more or less common, in different organizational settings. 5. 3. Directions for future research This study's ? ndings suggest a number of directions for future research. First, we hope future researchers will examine our hypotheses in other, more diverse samples.Although we examined two separate organizations, it is necessary to examine additional samples to better establish the generalizability or boundary conditions of our relationships. A second suggestion is to examine the relationships in this study with a longitudinal research design. The extant research on abusive supervision, including this study, has primarily relied on cross-sectional designs. Although telling, these studies leave out situations and behaviors that impact subordinates over time. In the case of both supervisor reports of coworker relationship con? ct and abusive supervision, it may be that supervisors and subordinates learn to cope with these s ituations, and become accustomed to them. Conversely, it could be that these situations and behaviors become worse as they accumulate over time (Harris, Kacmar, & Witt, 2005) as argued by Tepper (2000) and as noted in our discussion of cyclical relationships between abuse and behavioral outcomes in the previous section. Another avenue for future research is to conduct additional multi-level investigations to determine how supervisor experiences and situations impact their subordinates.In this study we examined supervisor reports of coworker relationship con? ict, but it also would be interesting to investigate the effect of supervisors' supervisor relationship con? ict, abusive supervision, LMX, team member exchange, and perceived organizational support (Erdogan & Enders, 2007; Tangirala, Green, & Ramanujam, 2007) as these variables are likely to have â€Å"trickle-down† effects on employee outcomes. Additionally, the aforementioned implication that supervisors might be aware of the consequences of abusive supervision suggests that a multilevel, or at least supervisor-level, focus on understanding the justi? ation process might provide insight into interventions for preventing such behavior. It would also be interesting to investigate personality characteristics, such as Machiavellianism, entitlement, and narcissism, of supervisors and subordinates and how these variables are related to abuse (Harvey & Harris, 2010; Kiazad, Restubog, Zagenczyk, Kiewitz, & Tang, 2010). Finally, we examined LMX from the perspective of the member, but it would be insightful to investigate leader reports of the LMX quality with their subordinates and how this rating interacts with supervisor coworker con? ict. 5. 4. Practical implications Before discussing speci? practical implications from this study, it should be noted that the overarching implication from this and most of the existing body of research on abusive supervision is that abusive supervision is detrimental to a ll parties. It is stressful for victims and hurts organizational performance and a supervisor's effectiveness by negatively affecting desirable outcomes (see Tepper, 2007) such as increased levels of effort and OCB. Employees may feel intimidated and afraid to report the behavior of abusive supervisors, however, making it dif? cult for organizational leaders to identify and eliminate these abusive managers.Because of the dif? culty in reducing existing levels of abuse, preventative techniques for reducing the likelihood of abusive supervision are advisable. The results of this study suggest that one such technique is for organizational leaders to observe and mediate con? icts between supervisory employees, thereby removing an antecedent of abusive behaviors. Additionally, because the supervisors in our study were more likely to abuse employees with whom they shared low-quality relationships, an organization-wide focus on the development of strong leader–member relationships m ight foster a climate where there are few 022 K. J. Harris et al. / The Leadership Quarterly 22 (2011) 1010–1023 desirable targets for abuse. We acknowledge that neither of these suggestions (i. e. , mediating supervisor con? icts and promoting strong leader–member relationships) are simple tasks. We suggest, however, that a continuous focus on these goals would consume far less time and energy than dealing with the consequences of abusive supervision. 6